The Effect of Language Immersion Education on the Preattentive Perception of Native and Non-native Vowel Contrasts

Proficiency in a second language (L2) may depend upon the age of exposure and the continued use of the mother tongue (L1) during L2 acquisition. The effect of early L2 exposure on the preattentive perception of native and non-native vowel contrasts was studied by measuring the mismatch negativity (MMN) response from 14-year-old children. The test group consisted of six Finnish children who had participated in English immersion education. The control group consisted of eight monolingual Finns. The subjects were presented with Finnish and English synthetic vowel contrasts. The aim was to see whether early exposure had resulted in the development of a new language-specific memory trace for the contrast phonemically irrelevant in L1. The results indicated that only the contrast with the largest acoustic distance elicited an MMN response in the Bilingual group, while the Monolingual group showed a response also to the native contrast. This may suggest that native-like memory traces for prototypical vowels were not formed in early language immersion.     

Speech-sound duration processing in a second language is specific to phonetic categories

The mismatch negativity (MMN) component of the auditory event-related potential was used to determine the effect of native language, Russian, on the processing of speech-sound duration in a second language, Finnish, that uses duration as a cue for phonological distinction. The native-language effect was compared with Finnish vowels that either can or cannot be categorized using the Russian phonological system. The results showed that the duration-change MMN for the Finnish sounds that could be categorized through Russian was reduced in comparison with that for the Finnish sounds having no Russian equivalent. In the Finnish sounds that can be mapped through the Russian phonological system, the facilitation of the duration processing may be inhibited by the native Russian language. However, for the sounds that have no Russian equivalent, new vowel categories independent of the native Russian language have apparently been established, enabling a native-like duration processing of Finnish.     

Categories and context in the perception of isolated steady-state vowels

The noncategorical perception of isolated vowels has been attributed to the availability of auditory memory in discrimination. In our first experiment, using vowels from an /i/-/I/epsilon) continuum in a same-different (AX) task and comparing the results with predictions derived from a separate identification test, we demonstrated that vowels are perceived more nearly categorically if auditory memory is degraded by extending the interstimulus interval and/or filling it with irrelevant vowel sounds. In a second experiment, we used a similar paradigm, but in addition to presenting a separate identification test, we elicited labeling responses to the AX pairs used in the discrimination task. We found that AX labeling responses predicted discrimination performance quite well, regardless of whether auditory memory was available, whereas the predictions from the separate identification test were more poorly matched by the obtained data. The AX labeling reponses showed large contrast effects (both proactive and retroactive) that were greatly reduced when auditory memory was interfered with. We conclude from the presence of these contrast effects that vowels are not perceived categorically (that is, absolutely). However, it seems that by taking the effects of context into account properly, discrimination performance can be quite accurately predicted from labeling data, suggesting that vowel discrimination, like consonant discrimination, may be mediated by phonetic labels.     

Speech Rate Estimates,Language of Schooling and Bilingual Digit Span

Bilinguals obtain larger digit spans in the language in which speech rate is fastest. This effect is generally interpreted as support for a central tenet of working memory theory, which proposes subvocal rehearsal rate as an influential determinant of memory span. Variation in the method of speech rate estimation, however, has been high, making comparison between studies difficult. In the present study, we compared the predictive power of three estimates of speech rate in relation to auditory digit span for two distinct bilingual types across nine school grades (1–9). One type spoke Swedish in the home and school (SS), the other spoke Finnish in the home and Swedish at school (FS). The results showed SS consistently obtained faster speech rates in Swedish, whereas FS obtained shorter articulation and numeral reading times in Swedish, as did grades 1–3 on a digit word reading task. However, FS grades 4–9 obtained equivalent digit word reading times between the languages. SS obtained a larger digit span in Swedish than Finnish, whereas FS obtained an equivalent digit span between the languages. Thus the results indicated that memory span was mediated by factors other than phonological loop functioning, as articulation time did not predict memory span performance for FS. The finding that FS obtained lower digit spans in Swedish relative to SS suggested that the former were disadvantaged in the processing of digits compared to native speakers of the language of schooling.     

Attention modulates somatosensory influences in passive speech listening

Previous studies showed that manipulating the speech production system influenced speech perception. This influence was mediated by task difficulty, listening conditions, and attention. In the present study we investigated the specificity of a somatosensory manipulation – a spoon over the tongue – in passive listening. We measured the mismatch negativity (MMN) while participants listened to vowels that differ in their articulation – the tongue height – and familiarity – native and unknown vowels. The same participants heard the vowels in a spoon and no-spoon block. The order of the blocks was counterbalanced across participants. Results showed no effect of the spoon. Instead, starting with the spoon enhanced the MMN amplitude. A second experiment showed the same MMN enhancement for starting with a somatosensory manipulation applied to a non-articulator – the hand. This result suggests that starting a study with a somatosensory manipulation raises attention to the task.     

Pitch discrimination without awareness in congenital amusia: Evidence from event-related potentials

Congenital amusia is a lifelong disorder characterized by a difficulty in perceiving and producing music despite normal intelligence and hearing. Behavioral data have indicated that it originates from a deficit in fine-grained pitch discrimination, and is expressed by the absence of a P3b event-related brain response for pitch differences smaller than a semitone and a bigger N2b–P3b brain response for large pitch differences as compared to controls. However, it is still unclear why the amusic brain overreacts to large pitch changes. Furthermore, another electrophysiological study indicates that the amusic brain can respond to changes in melodies as small as a quarter-tone, without awareness, by exhibiting a normal mismatch negativity (MMN) brain response. Here, we re-examine the event-related N2b–P3b components with the aim to clarify the cause of the larger amplitude observed by Peretz, Brattico, and Tervaniemi (2005), by experimentally matching the number of deviants presented to the controls according to the number of deviants detected by amusics. We also re-examine the MMN component as well as the N1 in an acoustical context to investigate further the pitch discrimination deficit underlying congenital amusia. In two separate conditions, namely ignore and attend, we measured the MMN, the N1, the N2b and the P3b to tones that deviated by an eight of a tone (25 cents) or whole tone (200 cents) from a repeated standard tone. The results show a normal MMN, a seemingly normal N1, a normal P3b for the 200 cents pitch deviance, and no P3b for the small 25 cents pitch differences in amusics. These results indicate that the amusic brain responds to small pitch differences at a pre-attentive level of perception, but is unable to detect consciously those same pitch deviances at a later attentive level. The results are consistent with previous MRI and fMRI studies indicating that the auditory cortex of amusic individuals is functioning normally.     

A comparison of Estonian,Swedish, and Finnish mothers' controlling attitudes and behaviour

The current study examined maternal control of children across families with early adolescents from different sociocultural backgrounds. The intention was to find out whether belonging to the same ethnic group/language community (i.e., Estonian or Finnish) is more important for determination of child‐rearing attitudes and practices than sharing the immediate sociocultural context (i.e., Swedish society). In addition, attention was paid to the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. The results were obtained from three monocultural samples of Estonian, Swedish, and Finnish families living in their country of origin; two bicultural samples consisted of Estonian and Finnish families residing in Sweden. Two types of data—mothers' reported attitudes towards the importance of control over children's behaviour (the Control Scale) and video‐recorded real‐life verbal behaviour—were used to determine how the mothers' attitudes towards control relate to the behavioural control exhibited in their real‐life interactions. The study showed that the Finno‐Ugric mothers living in their countries of origin controlled their children's behaviour significantly more frequently than those Finno‐Ugric mothers who live in Sweden, but both Estonian samples outperformed Finns in their reported control attitudes. The Swedish mothers were the least directive among monocultural mothers both in maternal beliefs and in real‐life behaviour, but they differed from Estonian and Finnish mothers residing in Sweden only in their lower scores on the Control Scale. The study revealed that mothers' real‐life control behaviour corresponded rather modestly to their reported attitudes toward the importance of controlling children. Analyses of actual mother—child interaction showed that only the Estonian mothers living in Estonia actually put their relatively high scores on the Control Scale into practice in real‐life interactions with their children. Finally, some characteristics of Estonian, Finnish, and Swedish languages and cultures are discussed that might determine the cultural differences in child rearing that emerged.     

Auditory and phonetic memory codes in the discrimination of consonants and vowels

Recognition memory for consonants and vowels selected from within and between phonetic categories was examined in a delayed comparison discrimination task. Accuracy of discrimination for synthetic vowels selected from both within and between categories was inversely related to the magnitude of the comparison interval. In contrast, discrimination of synthetic stop consonants remained relatively stable both within and between categories. The results indicate that differences in discrimination between consonants and vowels are primarily due to the differential availability of auditory short-term memory for the acoustic cues distinguishing these two classes of speech sounds. The findings provide evidence for distinct auditory and phonetic memory codes in speech perception.     

Discrimination and production of English vowels by bilingual speakers of Spanish and English

The goal of this study was to examine whether listeners bilingual in Spanish and English would have difficulty in the discrimination of English vowel contrasts. An additional goal was to estimate the correlation between their discrimination and production of these vowels. Participants (40 bilingual Spanish- and English-speaking and 40 native monolingual English-speaking college students, 23-36 years of age) participated (M age = 25.3 yr., Mdn = 25.0). The discrimination and production of English vowels in real and novel words by adult participants bilingual in Spanish and English were examined and their discrimination was compared with that of 40 native monolingual English-speaking participants. Stimuli were presented within triads in an ABX paradigm. Novel words were chosen to represent new words when learning a new language and to provide a more valid test of discrimination. Bilingual participants' productions of vowels were judged by two independent listeners to estimate the correlation between discrimination and production. Discrimination accuracy was significantly greater for native English-speaking participants than for bilingual participants for vowel contrasts and novel words. Significant errors also appeared in the bilingual participants' productions of certain vowels. Earlier age of acquisition, absence of communication problems, and greater percentage of time devoted to communication contributed to greater accuracy in discrimination and production.     

The perception of /r/ and /l/ in syllable-initial and syllable-final position

American English liquids /r/ and /l/ have been considered intermediate between stop consonants and vowels acoustically, articulatorily, phonologically, and perceptually. Cutting (1947a) found position-dependent ear advantages for liquids in a dichotic listening task: syllable-initial liquids produced significant right ear advantages, while syllable-final liquids produced no reliable ear advantages. The present study employed identification and discrimination tasks to determine whether /r/and /l/ are perceived differently depending on syllable position when perception is tested by a different method. Fifteen subjects listened to two synthetically produced speech series—/li/ to /ri/ and /il/ to /ir/—in which stepwise variations of the third formant cued the difference in consonant identity. The results indicated that: (1) perception did not differ between syllable positions (in contrast to the dichotic listening results), (2) liquids in both syllable positions were perceived categorically, and (3) discrimination of a nonspeech control series did not account for the perception of the speech sounds.     

Acoustic and phonological factors in vowel identification

Vowels are better identified in a consonantal syllabic context than as isolated vowels. This finding is contrary to predictions from traditional theories of vowel perception. The poor perception of isolated vowels might be attributed to a lack of dynamic acoustic cues or to familiarity effects related to the phonological rules of English. Vowel identification tests were conducted using six talkers, nine vowels, and seven syllabic contexts. Consonantal context improved vowel identification; final consonants aided identification more than initial consonants. No consistent support was found for the effect of phonological rules but duration information was seen to play a critical role. Results constitute a challenge to traditional theories of vowel perception.     

Perception of dynamic information for vowels in syllable onsets and offsets.

It has been demonstrated using the "silent-center" (SC) syllable paradigm that there is sufficient information in syllable onsets and offsets, taken together, to support accurate identification of vowels spoken in both citation-form syllables and syllables spoken in sentence context. Using edited natural speech stimuli, the present study examined the identification of American English vowels when increasing amounts of syllable onsets alone or syllable offsets alone were presented in their original sentence context. The stimuli were /d/-vowel-/d/ syllables spoken in a short carrier sentence by a male speaker. Listeners attempted to identify the vowels in experimental conditions that differed in the number of pitch periods presented and whether the pitch periods were from syllable onsets or syllable offsets. In general, syllable onsets were more informative than syllable offsets, although neither onsets nor offsets alone specified vowel identity as well as onsets and offsets together (SC syllables). Vowels differed widely in ease of identification; the diphthongized long vowels /e/, /ae/, /o/ were especially difficult to identify from syllable offsets. Identification of vowels as "front" or "back" was accurate, even from short samples of the syllable; however, vowel "height" was quite difficult to determine, again, especially from syllable offsets. The results emphasize the perceptual importance of time-varying acoustic parameters, which are the direct consequence of the articulatory dynamics involved in producing syllables.     

Human central auditory plasticity associated with tone sequence learning

We investigated learning-related changes in amplitude, scalp topography, and source localization of the mismatch negativity (MMN), a neurophysiological response correlated with auditory discrimination ability. Participants (n = 32) underwent two EEG recordings while they watched silent films and ignored auditory stimuli. Stimuli were a standard (probability = 85%) and two deviant (probability = 7.5% each for high [HD] and low [LD]) eight-tone sequences that differed in the frequency of one tone. Between recordings, subjects practiced discriminating the HD or LD from the standard for 6 min. The amplitude of the LD MMN increased significantly across recordings in both groups, whereas the amplitude of the HD MMN did not. The LD was easier to discriminate than was the HD. Thus, practicing either discrimination increased the MMN for the easier discrimination. Learning and changes in the LD MMN amplitude were highly correlated. Source localizations of event-related potentials (ERPs) to all stimuli revealed bilateral sources in superior temporal regions. Compared with the standard ERP, the LD ERP revealed a stronger source in the left superior temporal region in both recordings, whereas the right-sided source became stronger after learning. Consistent with prior studies of auditory plasticity in animals and humans, tone sequence learning induced rapid neurophysiological plasticity in the human central auditory system. The results also suggest that there is asymmetric hemispheric involvement in tone sequence discrimination learning and that discrimination difficulty influences the time course of learning-related neurophysiological changes.     

The chronometry of mental ability: An event-related potential analysis of an auditory oddball discrimination task

The relation between intelligence and speed of auditory discrimination was investigated during an auditory oddball task with backward masking. In target discrimination conditions that varied in the interval between the target and the masking stimuli and in the tonal frequency of the target and masking stimuli, higher ability participants (HA) displayed more accurate discriminations, faster response time, larger P300 amplitude, and shorter P300 and mismatch negativity (MMN) latency than lower ability participants (LA). Task difficulty effects demonstrated with variation in mask type indicate that the mask does not interfere with the detection of the deviant target stimulus, but rather that the target and mask are integrated as a single compound stimulus. The temporal effects suggest that the speed of accessing short-term memory is faster for HA than LA and, on the basis of the MMN latency, the effect is accomplished automatically, without focused attention. Moreover, the pattern of results obtained with these data support the view that the accuracy effects are determined by processing speed rather than discrimination ability. Comparator models that accommodate these effects are discussed.     

/n/-/l/音位合并现象的神经机制：来自MMN的证据

采用ERP技术,比较音位合并者与非音位合并者辨别合并音位/n/-/l/的脑电和行为反应。结果发现,非音位合并者在注意前阶段展现了显著的MMN;而音位合并者没有展现MMN,但在晚期展现了一个显著的负波。行为实验发现,相比于音位合并者,非音位合并者在分辨/n/-/l/时正确率更高,反应时更短。这些结果表明：两组被试区分/n/-/l/的能力在早期自动加工阶段就已经有了显著的差异。方言经验可能降低了音位合并者在听觉感觉加工阶段检测合并音位差异的敏感度。     

Perception of dynamic information for vowels in syllable onsets and offsets

It has been demonstrated using the “silent-center” (SC) syllable paradigm that there is sufficient information in syllable onsets and offsets,taken together, to support accurate identification of vowels spoken in both citation-form syllables and syllables spoken in sentence context. Using edited natural speech stimuli, the present study examined the identification of American English vowels when increasing amounts of syllable onsetsalone or syllable offsetsalone were presented in their original sentence context. The stimuli were /d/-vowel-/d/ syllables spoken in a short carrier sentence by a male speaker. Listeners attempted to identify the vowels in experimental conditions that differed in the number of pitch periods presented and whether the pitch periods were from syllable onsets or syllable off-sets. In general, syllable onsets were more informative than syllable offsets, although neither onsets nor offsets alone specified vowel identity as well as onsets and offsets together (SC syllables). Vowels differed widely in ease of identification; the diphthongized long vowels /e/, /ae/, /o/ were especially difficult to identify from syllable offsets. Identification of vowels as “front” or “back” was accurate, even from short samples of the syllable; however, vowel "height" was quite difficult to determine, again, especially from syllable offsets. The results emphasize the perceptual importance of time-varying acoustic parameters, which are the direct consequence of the articulatory dynamics involved in producing syllables.     

Contextual effects in vowel perception II: Evidence for two processing mechanisms

Recent experiments have indicated that contrast effects can be obtained with vowels by anchoring a test series with one of the endpoint vowels. These contextual effects cannot be attributed to feature detector fatigue or to the induction of an overt response bias. In the present studies, anchored ABX discrimination functions and signal detection analyses of identification data (before and after anchoring) for an [i]-[I] vowel series were used to demonstrate that [i] and [I] anchoring produce contrast effects by affecting different perceptual mechanisms. The effects of [i] anchoring were to increase within-[i] category sensitivity, while [I] anchoring shifted criterion placements. When vowels were placed in CVC syllables to reduce available auditory memory, there was a significant decrease in the size of the [I]-anchor contrast effects. The magnitude of the [i]-anchor effect was unaffected by the reduction in vowel information available in auditory memory. These results suggest that [i] and [I] anchors affect mechanisms at different levels of processing. The [i] anchoring results may reflect normalization processes in speech perception that operate at an early level of perceptual processing, while the [I] anchoring results represent changes in response criterion mediated by auditory memory for vowel information.     

When acoustic sequences are not perceptual sequences: The global perception of auditory patterns

Warren, Bashford, and Gardner (1990) found that when sequences consisting of 10 40-msec steady-state vowels were presented in recycled format, minimal changes in order (interchanging the position of two adjacent phonemes) produced easily recognizable differences in verbal organization, even though the vowel durations were well below the threshold for identification of order. The present study was designed to determine if this ability to discriminate between different arrangements of components is limited to speech sounds subject to verbal organization, or if it reflects a more general auditory ability. In the first experiment. 10 40-msec sinusoidal tones were substituted for the vowels; it was found that the easy discrimination of minimal changea in order is not limited to speech sounds. A second experiment substituted 10 40-msec frozen noise segments for the vowels. The succession of noise segments formed a 400-msec frozen noise pattern that cannot be considered as a sequence of individual sounds, as can the succession of vowels or tones. Nevertheless, listeners again could discriminate between patterns differing.only in the order of two adjacent 40-msec segments. These results, together with other evidence, indicate that it is not necessary foracoustic sequences of brief items (such as phonemes and tones) to be processed asperceptual sequences (that is, as a succession of discrete identifiable sounds) for different arrangements to be discriminated. Instead, component acoustic elements form distinctive “temporal compounds,” which permit listeners to distinguish between different arrangements of portions of an acoustic pattern without the need for segmentation into an ordered series of component items. Implications for models dealing with the recognition of speech and music are discussed.     

Identification of argentine Spanish vowels

The acoustical spectrum of the five Spanish vowels |a, e, i, o, u| has been delimited to show the areas covered by F ₁ , F ₂ , and F ₃ and the relative distribution energy among the formants. Through the analysis of the spectral components of vowels, isolated and in consonantal context, it is possible to estimate the different weight of each formant in vowel identification. At least for isolated vowels,F ₂ andF ₃ seem to be effective for the identification of [i] and [e] while theF ₁ andF ₂ carry the weight for the identification of [o] and [u]. The cue to differentiate [a] seems to beF ₂. Spanish vowels are compared with cardinals and North American English vowels. There is no correlation with cardinal vowels while similarities are found with English vowels.