Antecedents and consequences of approach and avoidance achievement goals: A test of gender invariance

ObjectiveBased on Elliot's revised achievement goal framework [Elliot and McGregor (2001). A 2×2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501–519], the present study tested the gender invariance of the multiple achievement goal measurement model as well as the hypothesized antecedents and consequences of the multiple achievement goals embedded in a structural model.MethodA sample of 450 British male and female athletes (M age=22.17, SD=6.59) were used. A multi-section questionnaire, assessing approach and avoidance achievement goals, perceived sport competence, fear of failure, and motivation regulations, was administered to the athletes before or after training. Data were collected with the informed consent of the coaches and the athletes.DesignCross-sectional design.ResultsAnalyses of factorial invariance revealed that the four goal model could be considered as equivalent across gender. Only partial invariance was supported with respect to the antecedents-achievement goals-consequences model. The paths between fear of failure to mastery-avoidance goal, mastery-approach goal to intrinsic motivation, and performance-approach goal to extrinsic motivation regulation were not invariant for males and females.ConclusionThe factorial validity of multiple achievement goal measure was supported for both genders. The present findings provided only partial support for gender invariance in the 2×2 model.     

Goal orientations at the global level of generality and in physical education: Their association with self-regulation,affect, beliefs and behaviours

ObjectiveLife skills programs should ensure that their effects generalize across contexts and activities. Three studies are presented examining the construct validity of an instrument assessing global goal orientations in life in conjunction with a measure of goal orientations in physical education. It was also investigated whether the effects of global goal orientations generalize across contexts.MethodParticipants were middle school students (N = 351, N = 580 and N = 658) who completed the two goal orientations instruments, measures of self-regulation, affect and beliefs at the global level of generality and specific to the physical education domain and measures of exercise and academic behaviours.ResultsMulti-sample factor analysis established the factorial validity of the global goal orientations' instrument and the distinctiveness of global goals from achievement goals in physical education. Controlling for social desirability effects, the partial correlations of goal orientations in life with global intrinsic–extrinsic motivation, life satisfaction, pleasant and unpleasant affect in life, purposes of life and perceived purposes of physical education, locomotion and assessment, metacognition in physical education, exercise and academic behaviours, were in the expected direction. In general, global goals made a significant contribution to the explanation of variance of global constructs, while achievement goals in physical education made a unique contribution to the explanation of variance of physical education specific constructs.DiscussionThe results support the construct validity of the instrument assessing global goal orientations in life. They also indicate that global goal orientations are distinct constructs from goal orientations in physical education. The global goal orientations' measure can be particularly useful for practitioners teaching interdisciplinary and life skills.     

Evaluation of the psychometric properties of a modified Positive and Negative Affect Schedule including a direction scale (PANAS-D) among French athletes

ObjectivesThe goal of these studies was to provide validity and reliability evidence of a modified Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) including a direction scale (PANAS-D). Study 1 tested the validity and reliability of the PANAS-D to measure both intensity and direction of affects. Study 2 examined the relationships between direction of affects and selected variables (i.e., coping, attainment of achievement goals and sport satisfaction) by controlling for intensity of affects.MethodA total of 306 and 296 athletes (studies 1 and 2) completed the PANAS-D and other self-report questionnaires. Data were analysed with reliability, confirmatory factor analyses (study 1) and correlational analyses (studies 1 and 2).DesignCross-sectional with self-reported questionnaires.ResultsIn study 1, the 4-factor structure of the PANAS-D (intensity and direction of positive affect and negative affect) fitted the data adequately. Multiple-group CFAs showed that PANAS-D was partially invariant across the two measurement occasions (before and after competition). The patterns of relationships between PANAS-D, attainment of achievement goals and coping provided evidence for the criterion-related validity of the PANAS-D. In study 2, direction of positive affect and negative affect were associated with selected outcomes (i.e., coping, attainment of sport achievement goals, and/or sport satisfaction) after intensity of these affective states were held constant.ConclusionsThis study provided support for the reliability and validity of the PANAS-D (study 1) and the incremental validity of the direction of affective states (study 2), supporting the distinction between athletes' intensity and direction of affective states.     

Measuring goal involvement in specific achievement situations: Development and validation of a 6-goal questionnaire

IntroductionCurrently, there is a growing interest regarding the dynamics of achievement goals and its consequences on motivational patterns, which urges researchers to focus more and more on states of goal involvement.ObjectiveBased on Elliot, Murayama, and Pekrun's (2011) 6-goal framework, this research aimed to develop and validate a state-like form French Achievement Goal Involvement Questionnaire (FAGIQ-6).MethodFirst, a 40-item preliminary version was created. Its clarity was assessed among 152 French undergraduate students. Then, its factorial structure was tested using confirmatory factor analyses on data collected among 439 French junior high school students. Finally, regression analyses on data collected among 317 other junior high school students were used to test how the instrument relates to constructs known to be related to the different achievement goals.ResultsThe structure of the FAGIQ-6 included 18 items that were deemed clear and that were organized into six factors (task-approach, self-approach, other-approach, task-avoidance, self-avoidance, and other-avoidance). Regression analyses showed that: Perceived competence positively predicted all approach goals and task-avoidance; an entity theory of ability positively predicted other-referenced goals; an incremental theory of ability positively predicted all task and self goals; task-approach and self-approach positively predicted intrinsic motivation and task absorption; approach goals and task-avoidance positively predicted intrinsic motivation; and other-avoidance positively predicted anxiety.ConclusionThe FAGIQ-6 can reliably measure goal involvement in specific achievement situations and thus enables new avenues of research on the dynamics of achievement goals.     

Comparing dichotomous and trichotomous approaches to achievement goal theory: An example using motivational regulations as outcome variables

Background. It is commonly assumed that there is conceptual equivalence between the task and ego achievement goals proposed by Nicholl's (1989) dichotomous achievement goal theory ( Nicholls, 1989 ), and the mastery and performance approach goals advanced by Elliot's (1997) trichotomous hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Aims. Our study examined whether this conceptual equivalence is reflected in measurement equivalence by examining the factorial structure and predictive validity of two established questionnaires that assess achievement goals based on Nicholl's and Elliot's approaches to achievement motivation. Sample. Greek adolescents (N=336, M age=13.45 years, SD=1.04). Measures. The participants completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire ( Duda & Nicholls, 1992 ), the Approach – Avoidance Achievement Goals Questionnaire ( Elliot & Church, 1997 ) and a Physical Education (PE) version of the Self‐Regulation Questionnaire ( Goudas, Biddle, & Fox, 1994 ). Results. Confirmatory factor analyses of a number of competing models showed that a model with five correlated independent factors had the best fit. This finding suggests that the goals measured by the two achievement goal questionnaires are related, although independent constructs. However, hierarchical regression analyses predicting regulatory styles in PE showed quite a substantial overlap between the mastery and performance approach goals proposed by Elliot (1997) , and the task and ego goals, respectively, advanced by Nicholls (1989) . Conclusions. Taken together, our results indicate that the self‐referenced and comparative 1 goals of the TEOSQ and AAGQ are substantially related, to the extent that they have minimal unique predictive validity; however, they are not identical constructs.     

Perfectionism and achievement goals in athletes: Relations with approach and avoidance orientations in mastery and performance goals

ObjectivesChallenging views that perfectionism is a maladaptive factor in sport and that it is related to a preoccupation with performance goals and a neglect of mastery goals, the present article argues that perfectionism in athletes is not generally maladaptive, but shows differential relationships with mastery and performance goals depending on which facets of perfectionism are regarded.MethodGoing beyond the dichotomous achievement goal framework, two studies with N=204 high school athletes and N=147 university student are presented investigating how two facets of perfectionism—striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection [Stoeber, J., Otto, K., Pescheck, E., Becker, C., & Stoll, O. (2007). Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes: Differentiating striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 959–969.]—relate to athletes’ achievement goals.DesignStudy 1 employed a cross-sectional correlational design, Study 2 a longitudinal correlational design.ResultsFollowing the trichotomous achievement goal framework, Study 1 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery and performance-approach goals, whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals and inversely to mastery goals. Following the 2×2 framework, Study 2 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery-approach and performance-approach goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals. Moreover, negative reactions to imperfection predicted residual increases in mastery-avoidance goals over 3 months.ConclusionsIt is concluded that striving for perfection in athletes is associated with an adaptive pattern of achievement goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection are associated with a maladaptive pattern. Thus, striving for perfection in sport may be adaptive in athletes who do not experience strong negative reactions when performance is less than perfect.     

Goal Achievement and Goal-Related Cognitions in Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression

This study investigates the extent to which achieving goals during behavioral activation (BA) treatment predicts depressive symptom improvement, and whether goal-related cognitions predict goal achievement or treatment response. Patients (n = 110, mean age 37.6, 54% female) received low-intensity cognitive behavioral therapy for depression, which included setting up to three behavioral goals in each of three BA-focused sessions (i.e., 9 goals per patient). Patients completed items from the Self-Regulation Skills Battery to assess goal-related cognitions and goal achievement for these goals, and depressive symptoms were assessed weekly with the PHQ-9. Multilevel models investigated the relationships between goal-related cognitions, goal achievement and depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms improved curve-linearly during treatment (B = 0.12, p < .001), but were not predicted by contemporaneous or time-lagged goal achievement. While cumulative goal achievement predicted end-of-treatment depressive symptoms (r = -.23; p < .01), this relationship became nonsignificant after controlling for depressive symptoms at baseline. Readiness, planning and action control predicted greater goal achievement, whereas greater goal ownership predicted less goal achievement (all p < .05). Motivation and outcome expectancy were related to subsequent, but not contemporaneous, improvements in depressive symptoms (all p < .05). This study indicates the importance of goal-related cognitions in BA treatments, and future research should investigate potential moderators of the relationships between goal-related cognitions, goal achievement, and improvements in depressive symptoms.     

Extending hierarchical achievement motivation models: The role of motivational needs for achievement goals and academic performance

In the current study, we investigated the role of three basic motivational needs (need for power, affiliation, achievement) as antecedents of goals within the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework, and examined their combined predictive validity with regard to academic performance in a sample of 120 university students. Structural equation modeling analysis largely supported our postulated model, linking motivational needs indirectly to course grades through goals. Achievement goals were formed by a combination of different motives: need for achievement was a positive predictor of all four achievement goals, and need for affiliation was negatively related to performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. Additionally, need for power was a positive predictor of performance-avoidance goals. Performance-approach goals had a direct (positive) effect on performance outcomes. In sum, our results integrate basic motivational needs with the achievement goals literature and extend therefore hierarchical achievement motivation models, by showing how basic human motives of achievement, affiliation, and power are related to goal striving motivation and performance outcomes in an academic setting.     

Motivational Climate and Achievement Goals at the Situational Level of Generality

Based on the rule of compatibility, according to which motivational climate scales should capture both the objective environment and whether it activates particular goals, a measure is presented assessing achievement goals and climate perceptions in physical education at a particular point of time. In Study 1, students completed the questionnaires following an experimental manipulation where eight classes had task-involving drills (n = 185 students), eight classes had ego-involving drills (n = 174 students) and nine classes (n = 221) served as the control group. Study 2 was an intervention consisting of nine consecutive physical education lessons. Students in the intervention group (n = 174) pursued mastery goals and control group students (n = 181) participated in typical classes. Questionnaires were completed prior to the intervention and every third lesson. The structure of the model consisting of four achievement goals (mastery, performance approach, performance avoidance, and social approval) and four perceptions of teachers' emphasis on these goals was satisfactory and superior to the structure of all alternative models. Factor correlation results and the relationship of the current scales with intrinsic-extrinsic motivation and amotivation provided evidence of convergent and divergent validity for the measures. Results from multi-sample confirmatory factor analyses supported the invariance of factor loadings across samples and the invariance of covariances for the goals construct. In both studies, the differences that emerged between groups provided additional support to the construct validity of the present scales. Practitioners interested in the effects of teaching and coaching on motivational climate and achievement goal adoption could acquire useful feedback using these scales.     

Development and validation of the Achievement Goal Scale for Youth Sports

ObjectiveThe objective was to develop and validate an achievement goal scale for young athletes that was aligned with the 2 (mastery/ego)×2 (approach/avoidance) achievement goal framework.MethodA total of 1675 male and female athletes ranging in age from 9 to 14 years participated in the AGSYS scale development and validation phases. Items having a readability level of grade 4 (age 9) or below were written and evaluated in a series of studies to assess the reliability, factorial validity, and construct validity of the Mastery and Ego scales.DesignBoth correlational and experimental methods were used to assess reliability and validity.ResultsExploratory and confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated factorial validity in samples of 9–10-, 11–12-, and 13–14-year-old athletes, and the subscales correlated in a predicted fashion with one another, with other sport and academic goal orientation measures and with several other theoretically relevant variables, including coach-initiated motivational climate, competitive trait anxiety, sport enjoyment, motivation, and self-esteem. Scores also changed significantly in response to a motivational climate coach intervention.ConclusionThe Achievement Goal Scale for Youth Sports (AGSYS) appears to be a reliable and valid measure of achievement goal approach orientations in children between the ages of 9 and 14 years. We were not successful in developing corresponding avoidance goal orientation scales that were not highly correlated, raising the possibility that children do not cognitively differentiate between mastery-avoidance and ego-avoidance orientations.     

When pursuing bad goals for good reasons makes it even worse: a social value approach to performance-avoidance goal pursuit

Consistently in achievement goal research, pursuing performance-avoidance goals has been associated with a decrease in achievement. Less is known to what extent this effect depends on the reasons underlying these goals’ endorsement. The present research uses a social value approach to assess how do performance-avoidance goals’ effects on achievement depend on the reasons anchored in social utility (goal endorsed in order to succeed) and in social desirability (goal endorsed in order to please one’s teachers). Based on five correlational samples meta-analyzed in Study 1, results showed that perceiving performance-avoidance goals as socially useful increased the negative effect of these goals on achievement. This moderating effect was replicated experimentally in Study 2. These findings support the relevance of studying achievement goal complexes and illustrate that performance-avoidance goals may lead to deleterious consequences even when endorsed for seemingly good reasons.

     

Stage of physical activity and approach-avoidance achievement goals in university students

ObjectivesThe main purpose of the present investigation was to examine approach-avoidance achievement goal patterns across stages of physical activity participation. In addition, sex differences in the approach and avoidance goals were examined as well as goal contrast scores (i.e., approach minus avoidance) as secondary purposes.DesignThe research was cross-sectional in design.MethodParticipants were 804 university students who completed a questionnaire assessing their stage of physical activity, 2 × 2 achievement goals, and demographics.ResultsMANOVA results revealed hypothesized and significant (p < .001) physical activity stage differences in the mastery and performance approach goals as well as significant (p's < .05) gender differences in both performance goals. A significant (p < .01) gender by physical activity stage interaction emerged for the performance goals and surprisingly, was found mainly in the advanced exercise stages (i.e., action, maintenance, and long-term maintenance). Last, significant (p < .001) gender and physical activity stage main effects emerged for the achievement goal contrasts. Males endorsed both the mastery and performance contrasts more than females. Collapsed for both sexes, the contrast scores were greater in the physically active than the non-active stages.ConclusionsFindings suggested that interventions targeting physical activity in university students should emphasize approach goals relative to the avoidance goals. Particular attention should be paid to the performance goals in the maintenance and long-term maintenance stages as they appeared theoretically inconsistent for the female participants. Last, the split in the preparation stage (active, non-active) should be incorporated into future stage based investigations as the split demonstrated two meaningfully different subgroups.     

Social achievement goals: the nature and consequences of different orientations toward social competence

The proposition that achievement goals are applicable to the social domain was examined in four studies. Study 1 established that different orientations toward developing or demonstrating social competence can be seen in individuals' responses to open-ended questions about their social goals and social competence. Studies 2 through 4 evaluated a new survey measure of social achievement goals. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the hypothesized model of social achievement goals. Convergent and discriminant validity for the new measure of social achievement goals was established. In line with hypotheses, a social development goal was associated with adjustment and a social demonstration-avoid goal was associated with maladjustment both concurrently and longitudinally. A social development goal also was positively related to instructor ratings of students' social adjustment in small classroom settings. A social demonstration-approach goal was most often unrelated to adjustment. The importance of social achievement goals for a comprehensive understanding of social motivation and adjustment is discussed.     

Attributional retraining and achievement goals: An exploratory study on theoretical and empirical relationship

IntroductionAchievement goals and attribution theory are theoretically and empirically linked, but existing literature lacks to explore the link between achievement goals and attributional retraining (AR), a motivational intervention based on the causal attribution theory.Objective(s)The aims of this field study were to determine the effectiveness of an AR treatment aimed to restructure college students’ dysfunctional causal explanations of poor performance and to explore whether achievement goals are predictive of the use of adaptive causal attributions.MethodsStudents’ achievement goals orientation and causal attributions were assessed and AR treatment was provided to a sample of second-year college students with maladaptive attributional schemas.ResultsFindings confirmed the effectiveness of AR treatment in restructuring self-defeating stable attributional explanations and suggested that achievement goals are implicated in the adoption of adaptive causal dimensions.ConclusionThe importance of integrating the two discussed theoretical models in order to provide efficacious AR interventions with students at risk is discussed.     

成就目标：理论、应用及研究趋势

成就目标理论是当前教育领域有关学生成就动机最为活跃的研究热点之一。20世纪中后期Weiner在整合动机理论和归因理论的基础上提出了成就目标理论。之后,Dweck等学者对成就目标的概念、分类及动机模式进行了大量研究。成就目标理论具有很好的发展前景,并在学校教育、体育运动和生涯发展等领域得到广泛的应用。未来研究应强调成就目标的动态性与多维性,注重成就目标的性别差异和社会期许效应,运用多元化方法以提高成就目标研究的外部效度,拓宽研究对象以增强成就目标的应用性研究,更加关注情绪情感与成就目标之间的关系。     

The 2×2 achievement goal framework in a physical education context

ObjectivesTo examine the 2×2 achievement goal framework (which crosses the task–ego and approach–avoidance distinctions) in a physical education context. The psychometric properties of the 2×2 Achievement Goals in Physical Education Questionnaire were tested and correlates of distinct achievement goal profiles were examined in two Asian samples.MethodTwo cross-sectional studies involving youth aged 11–18 years (total N=995) from Singapore.ResultsConfirmatory factor analyses supported the factor structure of the 2×2 achievement goal framework in the physical education context. Factorial invariance across gender and athletic status was supported through multi-group analysis. Four distinct clusters were identified, and linked to patterns of psychological characteristics and outcomes.ConclusionAchievement goal researchers in sport and exercise psychology may wish to make use of the 2×2 achievement goal framework. The intraindividual approach to achievement goal profiles is valuable, yet underutilized at present. However, important questions regarding differences in approach and avoidance motivation across cultures require further research.     

Performance goals: The moderating roles of context and achievement orientation

Past research has yielded mixed findings for performance achievement goals. To help resolve this inconsistency, two experiments explored the moderating role of context and individual differences in achievement orientation. Participants in Study 1 pursued either a performance goal or no goal while solving enjoyable puzzles. They did so within either an evaluative or non-evaluative context, and received positive feedback after task completion. Results show that performance goals did not affect performance on the puzzles and undermined interest only when pursued within evaluative contexts by people low in achievement orientation. Study 2 replicated Study 1 and extended it by manipulating outcome feedback valence. Negative feedback given in an evaluative context undermined interest for people high in achievement orientation, but had no effect on those low in achievement orientation. The findings are related to classic achievement motivation findings and current approach-avoidant models of achievement goal theory.     

Assessing Achievement Goals in Sport: Caveats for Consultants and a Case for Contextualization

This paper advises practitioners of the limitations of employing nomothetic research tools for the idiographic assessment of athletes' achievement goal orientations. Consultants are encouraged to appreciate the scoring trends of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ; Duda & Nicholls, 1992) and the Perceptions of Success Questionnaire (POSQ; Roberts, Treasure, & Balague, 1998) and to recognize that the measures may not bestow them with accurate and meaningful information on an athlete's motivational responses in the contexts of competition and practice. The contextual sensitivity of the TEOSQ and the POSQ is explored empirically among a sample of 179 high-level team and individual athletes. Repeated measures ANOVAs with follow-up paired t -tests illustrated how performers' goal orientations for competition differed significantly from their overall sport goal orientation. The findings are discussed with reference to the implications for practitioners and the development of appropriate contextual assessments of achievement goals at nomothetic and idiographic levels.     

Dominant achievement goals and different profiles among secondary students / Dominancia de metas de logro y perfiles específicos en enseñanza secundaria

Abstract

Spanish adolescents’ dominant achievement goals and their specific profiles were explored in a physical education context. A sample of 385 students (207 males and 178 females, M = 14.2 years) completed a questionnaire that included 2x2 achievement goals (AGQ-PE), dominant achievement goals, affectivity (PANASN), perfectionism (IPI) and outcome variables such as satisfaction with life (SLS), and intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation (PLOC). Eighty-seven percent of participants showed dominant achievement goals, the highest percentage was mastery-approach (66%). Patterns found were consistent with the theoretical framework. Students that showed dominant mastery-approach achievement goals had a positively valenced profile. Those that showed performance-approach dominance had a positive and negative valenced profile. The ones that showed performance-avoidance had a negative valenced profile. Finally, subjects that showed mastery-avoidance dominance had a neutral valenced profile.