Beware of friends: The cultural psychology of relational mobility and cautious intimacy

Previous research has contrasted patterns of cautious or prevention‐oriented relationality in various West African settings with patterns of growth or promotion‐oriented relationality in many North American settings. The present research draws upon the concept of relational mobility to test the hypothesis that different patterns of relationality have their source in respective affordances for embedded interdependence or abstracted independence. Study 1 investigated the relationship between cautious intimacy and perception of relational mobility among a sample of Hong Kong students. Study 2 compared students in Hong Kong and North American settings to test whether differences in perception of relational mobility mediated the hypothesized differences in caution about friends. Study 3 used an experimental manipulation among a sample of Hong Kong students to test the hypothesis that increased perception of relational mobility reduces caution about friends. Results reveal broad support for the hypotheses. Whether as a measured variable or as an experimental treatment, the perception of relational mobility was negatively related to caution about friends. Moreover, this relationship mediated hypothesized cross‐national differences in caution about friendship. A discussion of the results considers intersections of cultural and ecological approaches to psychology and implications for theoretical conceptions of interdependence.     

Generalizing disposability: Residential mobility and the willingness to dissolve social ties

Four studies examined whether residential mobility (RM) leads people to view objects as disposable and, in turn, view social ties as disposable. Study 1 showed that tendencies to dispose of objects and social ties are related. Study 2 demonstrated that a history of RM increases the willingness to dispose of objects and, through that, dispose of social ties. Study 3 showed that increasing the sense of RM increases the willingness to dispose of objects and, through this, dispose of social ties. Study 4 showed that the relational aspect of RM is crucial in affecting relational disposability. Our findings extend research on RM and support Lewin's (1936) conceptualization of mobility being associated with ease of disposing social ties.     

Subjective relational experiences and employee innovative behaviors in the workplace

This paper presents two studies that explore the implications of subjective relational experiences (positive regard, mutuality and vitality) on employee engagement in innovative behaviors at work. Data collected at two points in time were used to test two mediation models that link subjective relational experiences and innovative behaviors. The results of Study 1 indicate that subjective relational experiences directly and indirectly, through affective commitment, are associated with employee engagement in innovative behaviors. The results of Study 2 indicate that subjective relational experiences are positively related to psychological availability, creative self-efficacy, and engagement in innovative behaviors. In addition, the findings of Study 2 indicate that creative self-efficacy fully mediates the relationship between psychological availability and engagement in innovative behaviors, and partially mediates the link between subjective relational experiences and employee engagement in innovative behaviors. The findings of both studies provide further support to the theoretical distinction between psychological state engagement and behavioral engagement at work.     

For love or money? How activation of relational versus instrumental concerns affects reactions to decision-making procedures

We investigate how the direct activation of relational versus instrumental concerns affects reactions to decisions made by an authority. It is demonstrated that when instrumental concerns are experimentally induced, people’s evaluations of the authority (Studies 1 and 2) as well as their intentions to protest (Study 3) are more strongly affected by how the procedures used by the authority affect anticipated outcomes (i.e., whether procedures are favorably or unfavorably inaccurate) than when relational concerns are activated. By contrast, authority evaluations (Study 2) and protest intentions (Study 3) are more strongly affected by whether procedures used are fair (accurate) or unfair (inaccurate) when relational (versus instrumental) concerns are activated. These findings extend previous research where relational versus instrumental concerns were inferred, but not directly examined, to explain differences in responses to authorities’ decisions.     

Executive Functioning and Engagement in Physical and Relational Aggression among Children with ADHD

Although evidence suggests that executive functioning (EF) impairments are implicated in physically aggressive behavior (e.g., hitting) these cognitive impairments have rarely been examined with regard to relational aggression (e.g., gossip, systematic exclusion). Studies also have not examined if EF impairments underlie the expression of aggression in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and if child gender moderates risk. Children with and without clinical elevations in ADHD symptoms (N = 124; ages 8–12 years; 48 % male) completed a battery of EF tests. Parent and teacher report of ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms and teacher report of engagement in physical and relational aggression were collected. Models tested the unique association of EF abilities with physical and relational aggression and the indirect effect through the expression of ADHD or ODD behaviors; child gender was also tested as a moderator. EF impairment was uniquely associated with physical aggression, but better EF ability was associated with relational aggression. For boys, poor EF also was indirectly associated with greater physical aggression through the expression of ADHD behaviors. However, ADHD symptoms were unrelated to relational aggression. ODD symptoms also predicted physical aggression for boys but relational aggression for girls. Results suggest that there are multiple and distinct factors associated with engagement in physical and relational aggression and that better EF may actually promote relational aggression. Established models of physical aggression should not be assumed to map on to explanations of relational aggression.     

Approach and avoidance motivation as predictors of pro-relationship behaviors

Pro-relationship behaviors, such as willingness to sacrifice, are assumed to be driven by both approach and avoidance motivation. However, this assumption has not been directly tested. In two studies, we examined how individual differences in approach and avoidance motivation predicted pro-relationship behavior. In Study 1, avoidance (but not approach) motivation uniquely predicted sacrificial behavior. In Study 2, sacrificing was uniquely predicted by avoidance motivation, whereas accommodation was uniquely predicted by approach motivation. These data suggest that although both sacrificing and accommodation are pro-relationship behaviors, they are driven by different motivational systems, which in turn may result in different long-term relational outcomes.     

Organizational identification and leader evaluation in a global workplace: Interaction of self-uncertainty,self-construal,and organizational culture

Past studies in social psychology, and in organizational psychology, have incorporated social identity theory but have not specifically examined the effects of self-construal and self-uncertainty on an individual's organizational identification. Through two social psychology experiments, the present research advances the literature by studying the effects of three predictor variables (self-construal, self-uncertainty, and organizational culture) on the criterion variables of identification with the organization, commitment to the organization, extra-role behaviors (Study 1), and leader evaluations (Study 2). Study 1 (N = 256) found that participants evaluated a self-inclusive organization more favorably when it possessed a relational (as opposed to nonrelational) organizational culture. This effect was, as predicted, moderated by self-uncertainty such that it was significantly stronger under high rather than low self-uncertainty. Study 2 (N = 336) examined the same criterion variables as the previous study but with the addition of leader evaluation. It was found that interdependent participants identified with and were more committed to their organization. Participants with an interdependent self-construal and high levels of self-uncertainty rated their leader more favorably when in a relational (as opposed to nonrelational) organization. Additionally, a significant three-way interaction between the predictors was explored. Future research directions and wider implications for strengthening employee identification and leader evaluations in organizations are discussed.     

农村流动人口的流动模式与其STD/HIV高危性行为的关系

本研究旨在探讨从农村到城市的流动人口的流动模式和高危性行为状况,分析流动模式与他们高危性行为的关系。根据流动人口的职业分布采取配额的方式从北京和南京两座城市共选取了有效被试4301名,其中北京2201名。评估了他们的流动性包括流动时间、流动城市和与性病/艾滋病(STD/HIV)有关的高危性行为包括发生性行为的时间、多个性伙伴和参与商业性行为状况、使用安全套状况。分析结果发现:(1)流动人口的流动性大,平均为0.77,男性、未婚的、年龄小于20岁的流动性比女性、已婚的和年龄大于20岁的显著大;(2)流动人口存在一定比例的高危性行为,男性和未婚的高危性行为显著多于女性和已婚的,尤其是安全套使用率低;(3)不同流动时间、流动城市和流动性的人在高危性行为有些显著差异,总的来说,流动时间越长、流动城市越多、流动性越大的人存在着更多的高危性行为。     

Relational discrepancies and emotion: The moderating roles of relationship type and relational discrepancy valence

Relational discrepancy theory proposes that discrepancies in the extents to which relational partners meet relational standards are associated with emotions and that perceiving relationships in specified ways moderates associations. In a range of relationships, ideal relational discrepancies were associated with dejection and ought relational discrepancies with agitation (Study 1), associations moderated by relationship type. Discrepancy valence also moderated ideal discrepancy associations. Similar associations were found in friendships, moderated by relationship type (Study 2). Finally, relationship type and valence moderated associations in relationships with supervisors but not with colleagues (Study 3). These results support relational discrepancy theory propositions.     

Relational mechanisms in the goal pursuit process

Four studies tested a model for goal pursuit, which proposed three relational mechanisms that yield motives for a goal. These motives, in turn, predict goal outcomes, but the association was expected to be stronger among women than among men. Study 1 (n = 116) tested the model for a short‐term, collaborative project between strangers; Study 2 (n = 186) examined parents being motivated by their children to be healthier; Study 3 (n = 124) examined nontraditional college students' career searches; and Study 4 (n = 181) examined young adults' progress toward a self‐improvement goal. Results showed support for the model in all four studies, with the exception that feeling accountable to others was not a consistent predictor of relational motives.     

Maintaining nonvoluntary relationships with disliked partners: an investigation into the use of distancing behaviors

Theory in interpersonal communication usually assumes that people maintain their relationships voluntarily and that they like their relational partners. Neither assumption is necessarily correct. This research examines nonvoluntary relationship with disliked partners (NR/Ds). Heider's balance theory predicts that when people dislike their relational partners they will feel discomfort. It was hypothesized that people would try to attenuate this discomfort by increasing psychological distance between themselves and their disliked partners. Participants (n = 185 in Study 1, n = 158 in Study 2) responded to questionnaires about their maintenance of voluntary and nonvoluntary relationships with liked and disliked partners. The results showed that people use distance to attenuate the discomfort created by an NR/D. Thirty‐six distancing behaviors were found through content analysis. Using hierarchical cluster analysis, these behaviors were grouped into clusters that suggested 3 basic profiles of regulating distance in NR/Ds ‐ expressing detachment, avoiding involvement, and showing antagonism.     

Relational mobility promotes subjective well‐being through control over interpersonal relationships among the Chinese

The present research investigated the relationship between relational mobility (RM) and subjective well‐being and revealed its psychological mechanism among the Chinese. Study 1 demonstrated that RM positively predicted subjective well‐being. In Study 2, imagined ecology with high RM led to higher expected subjective well‐being relative to that observed in low RM. In Study 3, a correlational study, interpersonal relationship mastery mediated the relationship between RM and subjective well‐being. This result was replicated by an experiment in Study 4. These findings highlight a socioecological perspective in understanding people’s subjective well‐being and shed light on understanding the relationship between different types of mobility and subjective well‐being.     

Peer Victimization and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors in Depressed Adolescents

Suicide is a leading cause of death among youth worldwide, and depressed adolescents are at a significantly elevated risk to report suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts. Peer victimization is a robust predictor of adolescent suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs), but little research has focused on why bullying leads to suicidal thoughts and behaviors. To address this empirical gap, we recruited 340 (246 female) depressed adolescents ages 13–19 (M = 15.59, SD = 1.41) within 48 h of admission for acute psychiatric treatment. At the initial assessment, participants were administered clinical interviews characterizing psychopathology, nonsuicidal self-injury, and STBs (ideation, plans, and attempts). Further, they completed questionnaires assessing 3 forms of victimization (overt, relational, and reputational), recent risky behavior engagement, and psychiatric symptom severity. Controlling for internalizing symptoms and age, overt and reputational bullying were associated with more frequent past month suicide attempts, but not suicide ideation. Past month risky behavior engagement, but not NSSI, mediated the relation between victimization and attempts. However, sex differences revealed that this effect only held for males whereas bullying was directly associated with suicide attempts among females. In contrast, overt and relational bullying were non-linearly associated with suicide plans, and these relations were not mediated by risky behaviors or NSSI. Results highlight the complex network of factors that lead victimized adolescents to engage in STBs and may inform targeted suicide prevention and intervention programs.     

Preschoolers' attention and emotion in an achievement and an effect game: A longitudinal study

Understanding positive emotions' shared and differentiating features can yield valuable insight into the structure of positive emotion space and identify emotion states, or aspects of emotion states, that are most relevant for particular psychological processes and outcomes. We report two studies that examined core relational themes (Study 1) and expressive displays (Study 2) for eight positive emotion constructs—amusement, awe, contentment, gratitude, interest, joy, love, and pride. Across studies, all eight emotions shared one quality: high positive valence. Distinctive core relational theme and expressive display patterns were found for four emotions—amusement, awe, interest, and pride. Gratitude was associated with a distinct core relational theme but not an expressive display. Joy and love were each associated with a distinct expressive display but their core relational themes also characterised pride and gratitude, respectively. Contentment was associated with a distinct expressive display but not a core relational theme. The implications of this work for the study of positive emotion are discussed.     

Residential mobility and consumer psychology through a cultural lens

This study provides an extensive review of research on residential and relational mobility and discusses antecedents and consequences that implicate a wide range of psychological processes and behaviors. This commentary highlights their theoretical and practical significance in consumer research and discusses through a cultural lens the implications for specific consumer psychology domains. It also highlights the intricacy of mobility constructs, distinguishes them from the individualism–collectivism construct, and identifies consumer outcomes that warrant nuanced predictions based on residential and relational mobility and other cultural frameworks. The commentary concludes with ideas for future research.     

Relationship-specific identification and spontaneous relationship maintenance processes

Attractive alternative partners pose a relational threat to people in romantic relationships. Given that people are often limited in their time and energy, having the capacity to effortlessly respond to such relational threats is extremely useful. In 4 studies, we explored how people's identity in terms of their romantic relationship--their relationship-specific identity--affects their relationship-protective behaviors. We predicted that once a relationship becomes a part of one's sense of self, relationship maintenance responses are exhibited in a relatively fluid, spontaneous manner. In Study 1, we assessed the convergent and divergent validity of relationship-specific identification, demonstrating how it is associated with other relationship constructs. In Study 2, we found that less identified participants mentioned their relationship less than those high in relationship-specific identification, but only when interacting with an attractive member of their preferred sex. In Study 3, using a dot-probe visual cuing task, we found that when primed with an attractive member of their preferred sex, those low in relationship-specific identification gazed longer at attractive preferred-sex others compared to those high in relationship-specific identification. In Study 4, we found that relationship-specific identification was associated with relationship survival 1-3 years after the initial assessment. The present results demonstrate that relationship-specific identification predicts relatively spontaneous, pro-relationship responses in the face of relational threat.     

Relational mobility and close relationships: A socioecological approach to explain cross‐cultural differences

This article reviews how behaviors and psychological tendencies in close relationships differ between cultures, and proposes a socioecological framework to understand those differences. Our review of the literature finds that paradoxically, people in individualistic cultures are more actively engaged in close relationships (e.g., higher levels of social support, self‐disclosure, intimacy, and love) than those in collectivistic cultures. From an adaptationist perspective, we argue that one reason for these differences is higher levels of relational mobility in individualistic cultures. In societies with high relational mobility, where relationships are relatively more fragile, more active engagement in close relationships helps individuals to impress potential, and retain current, partners. We emphasize the importance of examining socioecologies to better understand close relationships.     

Cultural influences on terror management: Independent and interdependent self-esteem as anxiety buffers

Terror management theory (TMT) proposes that self-esteem serves as a defense against the fear of death. Previous research has suggested that independent self-esteem is more salient in individualist cultures, whereas interdependent self-esteem is more salient in collectivist cultures. Thus, we hypothesized that in collectivist cultures, independent self-esteem would play a lesser role and interdependent self-esteem a greater role in terror management, compared to individualist cultures. The results support this prediction. In Study 1, personal self-esteem was negatively associated with death anxiety in samples from a Western (Austria) and Eastern (China) culture. However, both self-liking and self-competence were negatively associated with death anxiety among Austrian participants, but only self-liking (and not self-competence) was so among Chinese participants. Surprisingly, collective self-esteem was not significantly correlated with death anxiety. Yet, Study 2 showed that among Chinese participants, relational self-esteem was negatively associated with death anxiety. Study 3 examined the roles of relational versus personal self-esteem in moderating the effects of mortality salience on worldview defense. Among Chinese participants, relational rather than personal self-esteem increased the defense of worldviews centered on collectivist-Chinese values following mortality salience (Study 3a). In contrast, among Austrian participants, personal rather than relational self-esteem attenuated the effect of mortality salience on the defense of individualist-Austrian worldviews (Study 3b). Self-esteem serves a terror management function in both collectivist and individualist cultures; however, the differences between cultural worldviews determine the type of self-esteem that is more relevant to terror management processes.     

Social comparison, self-stereotyping, and gender differences in self-construals

Four studies examined gender differences in self-construals and the role of social comparison in generating these differences. Consistent with previous research, Study 1 (N=461) showed that women define themselves as higher in relational interdependence than men, and men define themselves as higher in independence/agency than women. Study 2 (N=301) showed that within-gender social comparison decreases gender differences in self-construals relative to a control condition, whereas between-genders comparison increases gender differences on both relational interdependence and independence/agency. Studies 3 (N=169) and 4 (N=278) confirmed these findings and showed that changing self-construal changes gender differences in social dominance orientation. Across the 4 studies, strong evidence for the role of in-group stereotyping as mediator of the effect of gender on self-construal was observed on the relational dimension but not on the agentic dimension.     

The Role of Anxiety in Seeking and Retaining Risk Information: Testing the Risk Perception Attitude Framework in Two Studies

Despite the importance of health information seeking, not all people engage in such behaviors, especially when thinking about the disease is distressing. The focus of this paper is to examine the antecedents of information seeking and retention. Based on individuals’ risk perception and efficacy beliefs, the risk perception attitude framework is used to formulate four groups: responsive (high risk, high efficacy), avoidance (high risk, low efficacy), proactive (low risk, high efficacy), and indifference (low risk, low efficacy). In Study 1, a 2 (risk) × 2 (efficacy) between‐subjects experiment, participants’ perceived risk to skin cancer and skin cancer–related efficacy beliefs were induced to determine their information seeking, retention, and intentions to engage in future seeking. The responsive group, as predicted, was associated with the most information‐seeking behaviors and information‐seeking intentions. The avoidance group, however, sought information but exhibited the lowest retention scores. These results were used to derive two predictions—the incredulity hypothesis and the anxiety‐reduction hypothesis—that were then tested in Study 2. Study 2, also a 2 (risk) × 2 (efficacy) between‐subjects experiment dealing with diabetes, found support for the anxiety‐reduction hypothesis, which argues that the high‐risk, low‐efficacy group experiences more anxiety, which leads to high motivations to seek, but lower ability to retain information.