The effects of newcomer proactive behaviours on socialization outcomes: A meta-analysis

Organizational researchers and practitioners have shown increasing interest in how newcomer proactivity contributes to socialization. This meta-analysis synthesizes the existing empirical research that examines the relationships between frequently performed newcomer proactive behaviours (sensemaking, relationship building, positive framing and job change negotiation) and proximal and distal socialization outcomes. Proximal outcomes include role clarity, task mastery and social integration; distal outcomes include job performance, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intention. Based on 45 independent samples (N = 11,508), proactive behaviours were found to be generally beneficial for newcomer socialization. Relative weight analyses identified positive framing as the strongest predictor of five of the seven reviewed outcomes while relationship building accounted for the greatest part of the variance in social integration. Job change negotiation was the weakest predictor of socialization outcomes. The study also explored the impact of boundary conditions, including culture, study design and sample type, on the magnitude of these effects. The paper concludes by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of these findings, along with the study's limitations and suggestions for future research.     

UNDERSTANDING NEWCOMERS’ ADAPTABILITY AND WORK‐RELATED OUTCOMES: TESTING THE MEDIATING ROLES OF PERCEIVED P–E FIT VARIABLES

Using longitudinal data from a Chinese newcomer sample (N = 671), we investigated the predictive effects of adaptability on newcomers’ work‐related outcomes. Specifically, we tested 4 perceived P–E fit variables (i.e., P–O fit, needs–supplies fit, demands–abilities fit, and P–G fit) as mediators between adaptability variables and newcomers’ work‐related outcomes. Our results showed that after controlling for demographic effects and other personality variables (i.e., proactive personality and openness to experience), newcomers’ adaptability dimensions (i.e., cultural adaptability, work stress adaptability, interpersonal adaptability, and learning adaptability) were differentially associated with improvement in newcomers’ P–E fit perceptions over a 3‐month time period. In turn, the perceived P–E fit variables were related to the newcomers’ work‐related outcomes (i.e., job performance, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions), after controlling for the socialization process variables (i.e., institutionalized socialization experience, role clarity, and job‐related self‐efficacy). The mediating roles of perceived P–E fit variables were also confirmed. Both theoretical and practical implications in terms of adaptability, newcomer adaptation processes, and P‐E fit are discussed.     

Change in intraindividual variability over time as a key metric for defining performance-based cognitive fatigability

Cognitive fatigability is conventionally quantified as the increase over time in either mean reaction time (RT) or error rate from two or more time periods during sustained performance of a prolonged cognitive task. There is evidence indicating that these mean performance measures may not sufficiently reflect the response characteristics of cognitive fatigue. We hypothesized that changes in intraindividual variability over time would be a more sensitive and ecologically meaningful metric for investigations of fatigability of cognitive performance. To test the hypothesis fifteen young adults were recruited. Trait fatigue perceptions in various domains were assessed with the Multidimensional Fatigue Index (MFI). Behavioral data were then recorded during performance of a three-hour continuous cued Stroop task. Results showed that intraindividual variability, as quantified by the coefficient of variation of RT, increased linearly over the course of three hours and demonstrated a significantly greater effect size than mean RT or accuracy. Change in intraindividual RT variability over time was significantly correlated with relevant subscores of the MFI including reduced activity, reduced motivation and mental fatigue. While change in mean RT over time was also correlated with reduced motivation and mental fatigue, these correlations were significantly smaller than those associated with intraindividual RT variability. RT distribution analysis using an ex-Gaussian model further revealed that change in intraindividual variability over time reflects an increase in the exponential component of variance and may reflect attentional lapses or other breakdowns in cognitive control. These results suggest that intraindividual variability and its change over time provide important metrics for measuring cognitive fatigability and may prove useful for inferring the underlying neuronal mechanisms of both perceptions of fatigue and objective changes in performance.     

Age Differences in Proactive Newcomer Socialization Strategies in Two Populations

We investigated the role of age as a predictor of newcomer socialization behaviors, and documented relationships between specific strategies and subsequent role-relevant outcomes. Academic and retail newcomer populations were each surveyed over three time periods. A negative relationship was found between age and covert forms of information seeking in both samples. Further, the use of covert information seeking was related to lower subsequent levels of role clarity and job satisfaction.     

The neglected role of proactive behavior and outcomes in newcomer socialization

This study examined the direct, mediating, and moderating effects of proactive outcomes in the relationship between newcomer proactive behaviors and socialization outcomes. Based on a sample of 204 co-op university students who completed surveys at the end of their work term, the results indicated that newcomers who more frequently engaged in a proactive behavior (e.g., information seeking) were more likely to receive the corresponding proactive outcome (e.g., information). We also found that proactive outcomes mediate the relationship between proactive behaviors and socialization outcomes and several of the proactive behaviors were more strongly related to socialization outcomes for newcomers who obtained more proactive outcomes. These results indicate the important yet previously neglected role of proactive outcomes for understanding the relationship between newcomer proactive socialization behaviors and outcomes.     

Modeling Intraindividual Cognitive Change in Aging Adults: Results from the Einstein Aging Studies

This paper reviews research from the longitudinal Einstein Aging Studies (EAS) that has focused on modeling intraindividual cognitive change in aging adults. We describe how to separate models of intraindividual change at the within-person level from models of individual differences in change at the between-person level. We illustrate this distinction by analyzing new data from the EAS to test the speed hypothesis at the intraindividual level of analyses. The present findings replicate those of Sliwinski and Buschke (1999) by showing that within-person changes in speed predict within-person changes in cognition, but that speed does not substantially attenuate estimates of within-person cognitive decline. We conclude that correct measurement and explanatory modeling of intraindividual change should be the primary focus of longitudinal aging research, and that the more common practice of modeling individual differences in change should be a secondary focus.     

The Stability of Social Desirability: A Latent Change Analysis

Social desirability has been shown to be stable in samples with higher school education. However, little is known about the stability of social desirability in more heterogeneous samples differing in school education. This study aimed to investigate the stability of social desirability and which factors predict interindividual differences in intraindividual change. As part of a randomized controlled trial, 1,243 job seekers with unhealthy alcohol use were systematically recruited at three job agencies. A total of 1,094 individuals (87.8%) participated in at least one of two follow‐ups (6 and 15 months after baseline) and constitute this study's sample. The Social Desirability Scale‐17 was applied. Two latent change models were conducted: Model 1 tested for interindividual differences in intraindividual change of social desirability between both follow‐ups; Model 2 included possible predictors (age, sex, education, current employment status) of interindividual differences in intraindividual change. Model 1 revealed a significant decrease of social desirability over time. Model 2 revealed school education to be the only significant predictor of change. These findings indicate that stability of social desirability may depend on school education. It may not be as stable in individuals with higher school education as in individuals with lower education.     

Examining creative performance over time using hierarchical linear modeling: An illustration using film directors

Longitudinal performance of 73 film directors are examined using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). The HLM analyses model intraindividual performance trajectories (i.e., performance change over time) and interindividual differences in the trajectory parameters (i.e., initial status and rate of change in performance). Results reveal that as a group, directors' performance over careers, measured by critics' ratings, can be described using a quadratic trajectory with an increase in ratings following the initial film, followed by an eventual decline in ratings in later films. However, at the intraindividual level, directors differ in their initial status as well as rate of linear change, and some directors follow an accelerating or decelerating performance pattern. These interindividual differences in initial status, direction of change, and rate of change are related to the mean number of films per year directed by the individual. Implications and future research challenges for modeling longitudinal creative performance with HLM are discussed.     

Changes in person – organization fit: The impact of socialization tactics on perceived and actual P – O fit

This study examines the impact of socially oriented socialization tactics on changes in newcomer perceived and actual value-based person?–?organization (P?–?O) fit, and on the relations between these two measures of fit. Newcomers' fit was measured at entry (T1) and again after 4 months (T2) using the organizational culture profile (OCP; ). The results show that socialization tactics influence perceived fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment, but not actual fit. As hypothesized, perceived and actual fit become more congruent over time, suggesting a shift in newcomers' perceptions of the organization. Additional analyses were conducted to investigate the mediating influence of perceived fit on the relationship of investiture with job satisfaction and with organizational commitment and, for both outcomes, this was found to be significant. We discuss the implications for organization socialization procedures, research into newcomer entry using measures of actual and perceived fit, and HRM practices during the initial few months of organizational entry.     

Measurement‐Burst Designs for Social Health Research

Questions about variability and change in human behavior lie at the heart of much research in the behavioral sciences. This commentary examines the use of the measurement‐burst design ( Nesselroade, 1991 ) as an approach to study within‐person processes that transpire over very different temporal intervals. Consisting of repeated bursts of intensive (i.e., daily or momentary) assessments, the burst design can augment the type of information obtained from conventional daily diary and prospective longitudinal designs. We describe how the measurement‐burst approach can improve detection of long‐term intraindividual change, and how it can be used to study intraindividual variability and change in fine‐grained temporal relationships between daily experiences (e.g., hassles) and psychological states (e.g., mood). Some of the difficulties of implementing and analyzing data from measurement‐burst designs are discussed.     

Getting What's New from Newcomers: Empowering Leadership,Creativity, and Adjustment in the Socialization Context

Researchers consistently argue that organizations need to generate creative ideas to ensure long‐term success and survival. One possible solution for increasing creativity is to inject “fresh blood” into the organization by hiring new employees. However, past work suggests there may be a number of impediments that stifle newcomer creativity and, further, that encouraging newcomer creativity may compromise other adjustment outcomes. Accordingly, the present research examines how empowering leaders, in conjunction with contextual and relational factors (i.e., organizational support for creativity and newcomers' trust in leaders), facilitate newcomer creativity. Study 1 indicates that empowering leadership positively predicts newcomer creativity and that this relationship is contingent on the organizational context. Study 2 reveals that a more specific and proximal contextual socialization factor–newcomers' trust in leaders–is a more potent moderator than organizational support for creativity. Further, these predictors operate through creative process engagement to influence creativity. Finally, results indicate positive links between empowering leadership and role clarity, attachment, and task performance, suggesting that empowering leadership may serve as an important, albeit overlooked, socialization tactic.     

ADAPTATION AND INTRAINDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN SALES OUTCOMES: EXPLORING THE INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF PERSONALITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL OPPORTUNITY

Many practices in the field of industrial-organizational psychology assume that individual performance is stable across time; yet, little is actually known about the extent to which performance varies within individuals. We specifically address this issue by exploring the longitudinal influence of a situational opportunity (referrals received from the central office) on intraindividual performance outcomes of sales representatives. We also explore Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience as traits that explain variation in adaptation to changes in referrals. Our results show that more weekly variation in individual performance resides within individuals than between individuals. A majority of this variance is explained by the situational opportunity of referrals. Furthermore, the positive relationship between referrals and outcomes is stronger for sales representatives high on Conscientiousness, but weaker for representatives high on Openness to Experience.     

Dynamic models of well-being: implications of affective events theory for expanding current views on personality and climate

Research investigations into employee well-being (EWB) have tended to take a between-individual approach, which highlights differences among people. This traditional paradigm has been complemented by examinations of intraindividual EWB, which explores within-person variation over periods of time. Drawing on affective events theory (AET), we further elaborate the implications of intraindividual EWB for two reasonably stable sets of constructs—personality traits and affective climates. We argue that the intraindividual paradigm challenges scholars to rethink what they mean by stability, concluding that stability can be conceptualized in two ways—as reasonably consistent levels of affect and predictable patterns of affective change.     

Built to last: Interactive effects of perceived overqualification and proactive personality on new employee adjustment

We integrate relative deprivation and broaden and build theories to develop a process-based model of perceived overqualification and its relationship with new employee adjustment via “broaden and build” mechanisms (i.e., reciprocal relationships between initial status and change trajectories in work-related positive affect and perceived job autonomy). Additionally, we examine how new employee proactive personality may influence this process. Analyses of weekly survey responses from 331 new employees of a large financial institution throughout their first 90 days of employment revealed that those who felt overqualified generally experienced less work-related positive affect and perceived less job autonomy when beginning their jobs (assessed the first week of employment) than their more qualified counterparts. Moreover, initial levels of perceived job autonomy were positively associated with adjustment outcomes (assessed at 90 days of employment) via linear change in positive affect over time (assessed weekly, up to 8 weeks of employment). These findings suggest that perceived overqualification may negatively influence newcomer adjustment by stunting broaden and build processes. However, proactive personality attenuated this effect. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Curiosity adapted the cat: the role of trait curiosity in newcomer adaptation

Using longitudinal data from 123 newcomers across 12 telemarketing organizations, we examined the role of 2 forms of trait curiosity (specific and diversive) as antecedents of proximal adaptation behaviors (information seeking and positive framing) and more distal, in-role and extra-role behaviors (job performance and taking charge). Results suggest that specific curiosity predicts information seeking behaviors, whereas diversive curiosity promotes positive framing. Results also support the relationship between positive framing and performance and the extra-role behavior of taking charge. Overall, the study validates the role of curiosity as a multifaceted individual difference that serves as an antecedent to newcomer adaptation.     

On the nature of intraindividual personality variability: reliability, validity, and associations with well-being

Intraindividual personality variability is a construct that reflects the extent to which a person's self-reported personality changes over time or across social roles. Past studies have linked variability with important outcomes such as adjustment and well-being. However, existing variability measures conflate mean-level variance with true change over time, and thus these past findings are questionable. Three studies were conducted to examine the psychometric properties of existing variability indexes and to develop a new index that does not suffer from the problem of conflated variance. This new index is reliable and valid and can predict actual changes in self-reports over time. However, once mean-level variance is removed, intraindividual variability is no longer related to well-being.     

Assessing psychological change in adulthood: an overview of methodological issues

This article reviews the current status of methods available for the analysis of psychological change in adulthood and aging. Enormous progress has been made in designing statistical models that can capture key aspects of intraindividual change, as reflected in techniques such as latent growth curve models and multilevel (random-effects) models. However, the rapid evolution of statistical innovations may have obscured the critical importance of addressing rival explanations for statistical outcomes, such as cohort differences or practice effects that could influence estimates of age-related change. Choice of modeling technique and implementation of a specific modeling approach should be grounded in and reflect both the theoretical nature of the developmental phenomenon and the features of the sampling design that selected persons, variables, and contexts for empirical observation.     

Reciprocal influences in children's and families' adaptation to early childhood wheezing.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present study was to demonstrate the reciprocal relationships between family adaptation to illness and children's medication use over time among children who presented with wheezing illness in infancy but have varying illness outcomes by age 4. DESIGN: A longitudinal design and latent growth curve models (LGM) were used to predict change in family and caregiver adaptation to illness and children's medication use over three years among 140 infants with wheezing, among families from low socioeconomic, multi-ethnic backgrounds. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: One LGM predicted level and change (slope) of family adaptation to illness from children's baseline medication use. The second LGM predicted level and change (slope) of children's medication use from baseline family adjustment to illness. In both models, illness severity, caregivers' psychological resources, and emergency department use were covaried with the independent variable. RESULTS: Two latent growth models were found to adequately fit the data and demonstrate full reciprocal relations between family adaptation to illness and children's medication use while accounting for baseline variables. Baseline measures of caregiver psychological functioning and illness severity were also significant predictors of family adaptation and children's medication use over time. The two models were not statistically different for children with and without active asthma at 4 years of age. CONCLUSION: Findings support the reciprocal effects model of child and family influences on pediatric illness and underscore the importance of early indicators of individual and family functioning.     

Intraindividual variability may not always indicate vulnerability in elders' cognitive performance

This study examined consistency of performance, or intraindividual variability, in older adults' performance on 3 measures of cognitive functioning: inductive reasoning, memory, and perceptual speed. Theoretical speculation has suggested that such intraindividual variability may signal underlying vulnerability or neurologic compromise. Thirty-six participants aged 60 and older completed self-administered cognitive assessments twice a day for 60 consecutive days. Intraindividual variability was not strongly correlated among the 3 cognitive measures, but, over the course of the study, intraindividual variability was strongly intercorrelated within a task. Higher average performance on a measure was associated with greater performance variability, and follow-up analyses revealed that a higher level of intraindividual variability is positively associated with the magnitude of a person's practice-related gain on a particular measure. The authors argue that both adaptive (practice-related) and maladaptive (inconsistency-related) intraindividual variability may exist within the same individuals over time.