A technique for the measurement of aggressive behavior in mice

This paper describes an apparatus permitting the study of aggressive behavior in mice. Aggressive behavior may be spontaneous or induced by means of an electric shock delivered through the tail.     

A technique for continuous measurement of body movement from video

The movements that we make with our body vary continuously along multiple dimensions. However, many of the tools and techniques presently used for coding and analyzing hand gestures and other body movements yield categorical outcome variables. Focusing on categorical variables as the primary quantitative outcomes may mislead researchers or distort conclusions. Moreover, categorical systems may fail to capture the richness present in movement. Variations in body movement may be informative in multiple dimensions. For example, a single hand gesture has a unique size, height of production, trajectory, speed, and handshape. Slight variations in any of these features may alter how both the speaker and the listener are affected by gesture. In this paper, we describe a new method for measuring and visualizing the physical trajectory of movement using video. This method is generally accessible, requiring only video data and freely available computer software. This method allows researchers to examine features of hand gestures, body movement, and other motion, including size, height, curvature, and speed. We offer a detailed account of how to implement this approach, and we also offer some guidelines for situations where this approach may be fruitful in revealing how the body expresses information. Finally, we provide data from a small study on how speakers alter their hand gestures in response to different characteristics of a stimulus to demonstrate the utility of analyzing continuous dimensions of motion. By creating shared methods, we hope to facilitate communication between researchers from varying methodological traditions.     

A measurement technique for stability as applied in rifle shooting

A technique is described for the measurement, in the field, of stability and steadiness. Apparatus and method are provided along with suggested scoring procedures.     

The dental anxiety scale and effects of dental fear on salivary cortisol

Only a few studies have investigated use of the Dental Anxiety Scale in dental fear-induced neuroendocrine changes. The present study examined 19 female patients, each at two timepoints across an educational and a treatment session within periodontitis therapy. Subjective measures included a visual analogue scale, the STAI State scale, and the Dental Anxiety Scale. Salivary cortisol was measured in parallel across all four timepoints. Although patients were significantly more aroused and anxious prior to the treatment session, salivary cortisol remained unchanged. However, patients with high Dental Anxiety were significantly more aroused and anxious and showed significantly higher salivary cortisol during the educational session than those with low scores on Dental Anxiety. In conclusion, the Dental Anxiety Scale differentiated mean neuroendocrine change between patients scoring low and high for Dental Anxiety and its use as an accurate tool to identify patients with high dental anxiety should be further studied predictively.     

Appraisal of behavioral measurement techniques for assessing dental anxiety and fear in children: A review

The aim of this article is to review and evaluate behavioral and physiological measurement techniques frequently used to assess dental anxiety and fear in children. Attention is given to the data collected, the empirical findings obtained, and the availability of normative data. The main focus, however, is on the reliability and validity. Results show that all questionnaires are open to criticism. Of the behavioral measures, Melamed's Behavior Profile Rating Scale is to be preferred to Frankl's Rating Scale, Venham Rating Scales, and Visual Analogue Scales. The main reasons are that Melamed's BPRS measures the behavior of the child more precisely and that it has superior psychometric properties. Furthermore, because of their practical, conceptual, and psychometric problems, physiological measures at this stage are found to be less appropriate for assessing dental fear in children. It is concluded that a behavioral measure is not always the ideal, but often the only available technique for assessing dental fear in children.     

The influence of demand characteristics and expectancies in the measurement of salivary response

The sensitivity of salivary response measures to demand and expectancies was studied. One hundred thirty-one college students were tested for increases or decreases in salivation under one of three conditions: (a) when told to imagine the taste of another food more or less palatable than a target food; (b) when given a placebo pill that, they were told, would alter their salivation; and (c) when given direct instructions to alter their salivation. The type of instructions subjects received altered their salivation response. Specifically, subjects told to increase salivation had higher levels than those told to decrease salivation. These results suggest that salivation measures, which have been viewed by some as refractory to demand and related effects, can be controlled. Additional results of the study call for further validation of salivation as a measure of hunger and perceived food palatability.     

Monaural loudness adaptation for middle-intensity middle-frequency signals: the importance of measurement technique

Using the Simple Adaptation technique (SA) and the Ipsilateral Comparison Paradigm (ICP), the authors studied monaural loudness adaptation to a middle-intensity [60 dB(A)] tone at signal frequencies of 250, 1000, and 4000 Hz in the left and right ears. Adaptation effects were absent when the SA procedure was used. However, they were observed uniformly across all frequency values with the ICP, a result that challenges the assertion in the literature, on the basis of SA measures, that loudness adaptation for middle-intensity signals occurs only at frequencies above 4000 Hz. The ICP features periodic intensity modulations (+/-10 dB relative to the base signal) to accommodate listeners' needs for referents by which they can gauge subtle changes in the loudness of the adapting tone, a key component that is missing in the SA method. Adaptation effects in this investigation were similar in both ears, supporting the equal susceptibility assumption common in loudness adaptation studies.     

Genetic factors and the measurement of exploratory activity

The progenitor strains C57BL/6 and BALB/c and the seven recombinant inbred strains derived from them were used to examine the genetic relationship between two measures of activity and hippocampal lamination defect (Hld). Fifty-three mice (Mus musculus), 9 from each of the progenitor strains and 5 from each recombinant inbred strain, were tested for 16 min in a device which permitted both unobstructed traverse of the length of a runaway and contact with objects which were aligned alongside the runway. The C57BL/6 mice produced significantly more locomotor (runway traversal) activity, whereas the BALB/c showed significantly greater amounts of investigatory (object contact) activity. This reversal of relative position in the distribution of scores was not present for the recombinant strains. There was no dichotomous separation of recombinant strains for either measure. Examination of activity in terms of four consecutive 4-min periods indicates differences among the strains with respect to changes during the test session. The strains may be dichotomized with respect to decrement in activity within the 16-min session, but these groups do not correspond with those reported by others. The inference of a single genetic determinant for activity measured either as locomotor or investigatory responses is not supported by these data, nor is there any apparent relationship between activity and Hld. The critical influence of genetic-environment interactions in determining behavior and the effect of the selection of measurement techniques upon interpretation of data are emphasized by these data.     

A scale for the measurement of role-playing ability

A convenient paper-and-pencil measure of acting or role-playing ability was constructed, validated, and compared to a variety of theoretically and methodologically similar and dissimilar scales, including a specially designed improvisational situations test. Results indicate that the new scale provides both a reliable and valid screening device for the study of role-playing ability.     

An improved measurement technique for human operator stability in aiming tasks

A technique is presented for field measurement of human operator stability in an aiming task. The small angular displacements of the aiming axis are measured by photographing a part of the target as reflected by a mirror mounted on the aiming device.     

A psychophysiological therapy for dental fear

A partly automated method for treating dental fear and avoidance is outlined. The method combines a desensitization procedure with EMG biofeedback and cognitive reattribution. After therapy, 21 out of 24 patients suffering from severe dental fear were able to complete dental rehabilitation. The therapy process is discussed in terms of reconditioning, cognitive reorientation and coping training.     

A technique for facilitating the creation of mind

There are two forces operating in people. One resists pain and violently opposes integration. The other force is slowly bringing coherence and integration to what is inside. There has been a tendency within psychoanalysis to focus on the former. In this paper the author focuses on the latter. The hypothesis here is that if the analyst focuses upon the signs of integration that this assists the process of growing self-awareness. The negative transference emerges as the undeveloped aspects of the psyche are recognized by the patient.     

Repeated measurement of salivary cortisol within and across days among shy young adults

Temperamental shyness emerges early in childhood and remains relatively stable throughout development and has been associated with high and low levels of the stress hormone cortisol. Studies examining the relation between shyness and cortisol have been limited because they have traditionally collected only one measure of cortisol on a single day in the laboratory, restricting the reliability and diurnal profile of the measure in the participant’s everyday environment. We collected 15 saliva samples across three separate days (i.e., upon waking, +60 min post-waking, +8 h post-waking, +10 h post-waking, and bedtime) in a sample of healthy young adults selected for high and low shyness in order to characterize a portion of the diurnal cortisol rhythm. Overall, shy individuals demonstrated relatively lower cortisol across the day and across multiple mornings than non-shy adults. Higher self-reported social anxiety across multiple measures was also related to lower total cortisol levels across all participants. The present study replicates and extends our previous findings of low salivary cortisol measured in the laboratory in shy adults to repeated measurement in their everyday environments.     

A rationale for the measurement of traits in individuals

Hypotheses presented in a previous paper conceive of an individual's position on an attitude scale as represented by a mean position (status score) and a sigma (dispersion score). The testing of these hypotheses requires a determination of these two scores for each individual. A rationale is presented here for the determination of these two scores for an individual from his forced choice responses to pairs of items of nearly equal scale value.This study was made possible by the Bureau of Psychological Services, Institute for Human Adjustment, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan.