Recurrent speech patterns as cues to the segmentation of multisyllabic sequences.

First and second language acquisition both require that speech be segmented into familiar, multiphonemic units (e.g., words and common phrases). The present research examines one segmentation cue that is of considerable theoretical interest: the repetition of fixed sequences of speech. On each trial, subjects heard repetitions ('pre-exposures') of two artificially-constructed, multisyllabic patterns that shared an embedded segment 1 or 2 syllables long (e.g., 2 shared syllables: [ga-li-SE] and [li-SE-stu]). There were 2 and 6, 4 and 4, or 6 and 2 repetitions of the two patterns, randomly ordered. Subjects were then to indicate the groupings they perceived within a subsequent, longer sequence containing both of the pre-exposed patterns (e.g., [ga-li-SE-stu]). Responses varied systematically with the size of the embedded segment, the repetition frequencies of the two pre-exposed patterns, and the serial position of each pre-exposure. The results illustrate how investigations of the processing of speech patterns may contribute to an understanding of some elementary aspects of language learning.     

An irrelevant speech effect with repeated and continuous background speech

The irrelevant speech effect is the impairment of task performance by the presentation of to-be-ignored speech stimuli. Typically, the irrelevant speech comprises a variety of sounds, but previous research (e.g., Jones, Madden, & Miles, 1992) has suggested that the deleterious effect of background speech is virtually eliminated if the speech comprises repetitions of a sound (e.g., “be, be, be”) or a single continuous sound (e.g., “beeeeeee”). Four experiments are reported that challenge this finding. Experiments 1, 2, and 4 show a substantial impairment in serial recall performance in the presence of a repeated sound, and Experiments 3 and 4 show a similar impairment of serial recall in the presence of a continuous sound. The relevance of these findings to several explanations of the irrelevant speech effect is discussed.     

Is Human Behavior Autocorrelated? An Empirical Analysis

The current review and analysis investigated the presence of serial dependency (or autocorrelation) in single-subject applied behavior-analytic research. While well researched, few studies have controlled for the number of data points that appeared in the time-series and, thus, the negative bias of the r coefficient, and the power to detect true serial dependency effects. Therefore, all baseline graphs that appeared in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) between 1968 and 1993 that provided more than 30 data points were examined for the presence of serial dependency (N = 103). Results indicated that 12% of the baseline graphs provided a significant lag-1 autocorrelation, and over 83% of them had coefficient values less than or equal to (±.25). The distribution of the lag-1 autocorrelation coefficients had a mean of .10. Subsequent distributions of partial autocorrelations at lags two through seven had smaller means indicating that as the distance between observations increases (i.e., the lag), serial dependency decreased. Although serial dependency did not appear to be a common property of the single-subject behavioral experiments, it is recommended that, whenever statistical analyses are contemplated, its presence should always be examined. Alternatives for coping with the presence of significant levels of serial dependency were discussed in terms of: (a) using alternative statistical procedures (e.g., ARIMA models, randomization tests, the Shewhart quality-control charts); (b) correcting statistics of traditional parametric procedures (e.g., t, F); or (c) using the autocorrelation coefficient as an indicator and estimate of reliable intervention effects.     

The Developmental Course of Distance,Time, and Velocity Concepts:A Generative Connectionist Model

Connectionist simulations of children's acquisition of distance (d), time (t), and velocity (v) concepts using a generative algorithm-cascade-correlation-are reported. Rules that correlated most highly with network responses during training were consistent with the developmental course of children's concepts. Networks integrated the defining dimensions of the concepts first by identity rules (e.g., v = d), then additive rules (e.g., v = d - t), and finally multiplicative rules (e.g., v = d ÷ t. The results are discussed in terms of similarity to children's development, the contribution of connectionism to the study of cognitive development, contrasts with alternative models, and directions for future research.     

Frequency of the first feature in action sequences influences feature binding

We investigated whether binding among perception and action feature codes is a preliminary step toward creating a more durable memory trace of an action event. If so, increasing the frequency of a particular event (e.g., a stimulus requiring a movement with the left or right hand in an up or down direction) should increase the strength and speed of feature binding for this event. The results from two experiments, using a partial-repetition paradigm, confirmed that feature binding increased in strength and/or occurred earlier for a high-frequency (e.g., left hand moving up) than for a low-frequency (e.g., right hand moving down) event. Moreover, increasing the frequency of the first-specified feature in the action sequence alone (e.g., ??left?? hand) increased the strength and/or speed of action feature binding (e.g., between the ??left?? hand and movement in an ??up?? or ??down?? direction). The latter finding suggests an update to the theory of event coding, as not all features in the action sequence equally determine binding strength. We conclude that action planning involves serial binding of features in the order of action feature execution (i.e., associations among features are not bidirectional but are directional), which can lead to a more durable memory trace. This is consistent with physiological evidence suggesting that serial order is preserved in an action plan executed from memory and that the first feature in the action sequence may be critical in preserving this serial order.     

Eliciting Consumer Choice Heuristics: Sales Representives' Persuasion Strategies

Research has shown that consumers spend little cognitive effort in marketplace decisions (i.e., information acquisition, evaluation of alternatives). In fact, consumers simplify decision making by using decision rules learned from previous purchases. The present research explores the notion that during the course of a sales interaction, sales representatives may use expressions (i.e., primes) that encourage consumers to invoke previously used decision rules. These decision rules lead consumers to consider factors not necessarily relevant to the purchase decision (e.g., what others will think, reciprocate sales representatives' efforts, missed opportunities). Thus, consumers' thoughts are diverted from more pertinent factors such as budget and timing of the purchase. Moreover, consumers persuade themselves to purchase via thoughts concerning the decision rule and visual imagery associated with consumption. The notions of priming and schema- directed thinking are used to explain how sales representatives elicit consumers' decision rules from long-term memory. Implications of these techniques are made with regards to relationship management.     

Procedural fairness and endorsement of prototypical leaders: Leader benevolence or follower control?

This research explored why strongly identifying followers endorse prototypical leaders by addressing the role of procedural fairness in this process. We introduced the distinction between procedural fairness rules relating to leader benevolence (i.e., whether the leader supports the group’s interests) and follower control (i.e., whether followers can influence the leader’s decisions). We predicted that strongly identifying group members endorse prototypical leaders because they perceive such leaders as acting in line with benevolence related fairness rules rather than because such leaders are perceived as giving followers control. An organizational field study and a laboratory experiment revealed support for these ideas. Our results thus provide insights into why prototypical leaders are endorsed among strongly identifying followers. They also have implications for the procedural fairness literature in showing that frequently studied procedural fairness rules (e.g., voice) do not explain endorsement of leaders believed to support the group’s interests.     

“I Am Moral,But You Are Deterred”: Differential Attributions About Why People Obey the Law1

This research examined the different attributions that individuals make for law‐abiding behavior by different people. Experiment 1 reveals that individuals believe that they and other highly moral people are motivated to obey laws because of internal reasons (e.g., laws reflect valued rules and moral behavior), whereas they believe that criminals are motivated by external reasons (e.g., fear of punishment). However, Experiment 2 shows that even some criminals are seen as motivated to obey laws regarding particular types of crimes because of internal factors. Experiment 3 replicates these general findings using a between‐subjects design. Finally, Experiment 4 shows that individuals believe that they are motivated to obey laws regarding minor transgressions (e.g., speed limits) for both internal and external reasons. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for both psychological theory and social policy.     

Substance use in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: an update on empirical research and implications for treatment

Historically, substance use problems were thought to be more prevalent in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) populations, and correcting skewed perceptions about substance abuse among LGB individuals is critically important. This review provides an update on empirical evidence on LGB substance use patterns and treatment outcome, with specific focus on clinical implications of findings. Compared to earlier studies, the recent research included in this review has used more sophisticated methodologies and more representative samples, and also has investigated multiple dimensions of sexual orientation in relation to substance use patterns. Findings from recent research suggest that lesbians and bisexual women are at greater risk for alcohol and drug use disorders and related problems, and that gay and bisexual men are at greater risk for illicit drug use and related problems. Several sociocultural factors have emerged as correlates of substance use patterns in LGB populations (e.g., affiliation with gay culture, HIV status), and several demographic characteristics (e.g., female, older age) do not appear to be as robust of protective factors against substance abuse for LGB individuals compared to heterosexual populations. Bisexual identity and/or behavior in particular seem to be related to increased risk for substance abuse. In terms of treatment outcome, limitations of extant research prevent conclusions about the relative impact of LGB-specific interventions, and further research that includes women and uses more equivalent comparison interventions is needed. Clinical implications of research findings are discussed for case identification, selection of treatment goals (e.g., moderation vs. abstinence), targets for intervention, and specific treatment modalities.     

Towards a socially situated rumouring: Historical and critical perspectives of rumour transmission

Rumours are an ubiquitous feature of people's social life and one of the oldest topics in social psychology. Rumours, which tend to spread during crisis situations, allow people to mitigate unpleasant feelings and construct a meaning of the surrounding world. Rumour transmission has been associated with a number of specific individual (e.g., anxiety, personal involvement) and situational (e.g., ambiguity, uncertainty) characteristics and studied with the serial reproduction paradigm (Allport & Postman, 1947) in laboratory settings. The main criticism of rumour research has been its focus on primarily individual‐level analyses in an attempt to explain a social phenomenon. Furthermore, the classic serial reproduction paradigm tends to omit the essential properties of interpersonal interactions and communication processes. Despite the recent and rapidly growing trend of social network methods in social and behavioural sciences, rumour research could also include a finer analysis of individuals' social characteristics and the related complexity of real‐life communication processes. Therefore, the integration of a socially situated approach to rumour transmission might be especially relevant for rumour research and promising for the study of other social phenomena by extension.     

Rule-governed behavior and behavioral anthropology

According to cultural materialism, cultural practices result from the materialistic outcomes of those practices, not from sociobiological, mentalistic, or mystical predispositions (e.g., Hindus worship cows because, in the long run, that worship results in more food, not less food). However, according to behavior analysis, such materialistic outcomes do not reinforce or punish the cultural practices, because such outcomes are too delayed, too improbable, or individually too small to directly reinforce or punish the cultural practices (e.g., the food increase is too delayed to reinforce the cow worship). Therefore, the molar, materialistic contingencies need the support of molecular, behavioral contingencies. And according to the present theory of rule-governed behavior, the statement of rules describing those molar, materialistic contingencies can establish the needed molecular contingencies. Given the proper behavioral history, such rule statements combine with noncompliance to produce a learned aversive condition (often labeled fear, anxiety, or guilt). The termination of this aversive condition reinforces compliance, just as its presentation punishes noncompliance (e.g., the termination of guilt reinforces the tending to a sick cow). In addition, supernatural rules often supplement these materialistic rules. Furthermore, the production of both materialistic and supernatural rules needs cultural designers who understand the molar, materialistic contingencies.     

The effects of base rates and individuating information on judgments about another person

Past research suggests that in judging a person's category membership, people largely ignore the population frequency of membership in the category (base rates) in favor of individuating information about the particular person. This study tested the hypothesis that base rates will be utilized to the extent that the usefulness of the individuating information for diagnosing category membership is diminished. Subjects were given problems in which both base rates of membership in each of two categories and individuating information about a target person were presented. Then, in each case, they were asked to assess the probability that the target person belonged to each category. In three sets of problems, the diagnostic usefulness of the individuating information (personality characteristics) was diminished by including individuating information that was either inconsistent or irrelevant, or by increasing the similarity of the two alternative membership categories. In a fourth set of problems, the individualistic information included consistent, relevant personal characteristics and the membership categories were dissimilar. As expected, base rates were used in each of the first three sets of problems but were ignored in the fourth set. The results were interpreted in terms of informational factors that induce a shift away from a habitual, spontaneous reliance on a source of information (e.g., personality traits) for which one has well-developed rules (e.g., intuitive personality theories), and toward a more controlled, deliberate mode of thinking wherein other sources of information (e.g., base rates) are attended to and incorporated into judgment through less frequently used rules (e.g., sampling rules).     

Premarital Predictors of Remarital Quality: Implications for Clinicians

This paper presents a review of the research literature from 1980 to present on the premarital predictors of remarital satisfaction and stability (quality). The predictive factors are organized with an ecosystemic theoretical model using three general predictor categories: background and context factors (e.g., stepchildren), individual traits and behaviors (e.g., attachment to an ex-spouse), and couple interactional processes (e.g., couple consensus). Major factors related to lower remarriage quality include the roles of stepchildren, stepfamily complexity, emotional attachment to an ex-spouse, serial marriage, and economic strain. Predictors related to higher remarital quality include couple consensus on important topics, social support from family and friends, and financial stability. Implications for couple therapy before remarriage are discussed.     

Implicit sequence learning is represented by stimulus—response rules

For nearly two decades, researchers have investigated spatial sequence learning in an attempt to identify what specifically is learned during sequential tasks (e.g., stimulus order, response order, etc.). Despite extensive research, controversy remains concerning the information-processing locus of this learning effect. There are three main theories concerning the nature of spatial sequence learning, corresponding to the perceptual, motor, or response selection (i.e., central mechanisms underlying the association between stimulus and response pairs) processes required for successful task performance. The present data investigate this controversy and support the theory that stimulus—response (S—R) rules are critical for sequence learning. The results from two experiments demonstrate that sequence learning is disrupted only when the S—R rules for the task are altered. When the S—R rules remain constant or involve only a minor transformation, significant sequence learning occurs. These data implicate spatial response selection as a likely mechanism mediating spatial sequential learning.     

Visual detection of multi-letter patterns

This study addressed two basic questions about the detection of multi-letter patterns: (a) How is the detection of a multi-letter pattern related to the detection of its individual components? (b) How is the detection of a sequence of letters influenced by the observer's familiarity with that sequence? In three experiments observers searched for one-, two-, or three letter patterns embedded in a rapid series of multiple six-letter frames. In Experiment 1, unfamiliar two-letter patterns were detected more accurately than their one-letter components. This two-letter advantage reflects the fact that in an array of fixed size, larger target stimuli contain more information and are easier to discriminate from nontarget alternatives. Quantitative analyses indicated that observers combine information not decisions, about the component letters in a pattern. In Experiment 2, with statistical and physical properties equated, a familiar three-letter pattern (i.e., CAT) was detected more accurately than its unfamiliar anagram (i.e., TCA). This word advantage in word (not letter) detection persisted even after extensive practice and was uninfluenced by the lexical character of distractor items. In Experiment 3, words (e.g., FIB), pronounceable non words (e.g., FIF(, and familiar acronyms (e.g., FBI) were detected more readily than unfamiliar items (e.g., IBF). Thus both orthographic knowledge and familiarity with specific sequences can facilitate perceptual processing in "word" detection.     

Individual differences among children in spelling and reading styles

Previous studies have found differences among children in their relative reliance on spelling-sound rules and word-specific associations in reading words. Children at one end of the continuum ("Phoenicians") rely heavily on spelling-sound rules; children at the other end ("Chinese") are more likely to use specific associations. This study found evidence for a Phoenician-Chinese continuum in spelling as well as in reading. Ability to spell nonsense word (e.g., "prunt") correlated more highly with ability to spell regular words (e.g., "grunt") than with ability to spell exception words (e.g., "front"). Children who were skilled at rules tended to overgeneralize them to exception words. In addition, a measure of rule use in spelling correlated with measures of rule use in reading.     

Enhancement of 4-year-old children's memory span for phonologically similar and dissimilar word lists

Previous research suggests that preschool children are deficient in rehearsal and that stimulus list repetitions can improve their recall, presumably by substituting for the products of rehearsal. However, the previous research included interitem or postlist retention intervals of several seconds or more. We examined the utility of list repetitions with reference to an ordinary span task in which spoken words were presented 1 s apart for immediate recall. Lists with phonologically similar versus dissimilar items were included, to determine if the overall pattern of recall could be made more similar to what is ordinarily obtained in older children. Cumulative repetition was found to cause a moderate increase in both memory span and the phonological similarity effect. Other types of list repetition provided more insight into types of stimulus redundancy that were helpful (e.g., repeated serial order information) or not helpful (e.g., forced articulatory coding) to children attempting to recall spoken lists. The underlying mnemonic processes are discussed.     

A Best Practices Guide to Intersectional Approaches in Psychological Research

This paper serves as a “best practices guide” for researchers interested in applying intersectionality theory to psychological research. Intersectionality, the mutually constitutive relations among social identities, presents several issues to researchers interested in applying it to research. I highlight three central issues and provide guidelines for how to address them. First, I discuss the constraints in the number of identities that researchers are able to test in an empirical study, and highlight relevant decision rules. Second, I discuss when to focus on “master” identities (e.g., gender) versus “emergent” identities (i.e., White lesbian). Third, I argue that treating identity as a process situated within social structural contexts facilitates the research process. I end with a brief discussion of the implications for the study of intersectionality.     

Visual distraction and visuo-spatial memory: a sandwich effect

The functional characteristics of visuo-spatial serial memory and its sensitivity to irrelevant visual information are examined in the present study, through the investigation of the sandwich effect (e.g., Hitch, 1975). The memory task was one of serial recall for the position of a sequence of seven spatially and temporally separated dots. The presence of irrelevant dots interpolated with to-be-remembered dots affected performance over most serial positions (Experiment 1) but that effect was significantly reduced when the interpolated dots were distinct from the to-be-remembered dots by colour and shape (Experiment 2). Parallels are made between verbal and spatial serial memory, and the reduction of the sandwich effect is discussed in terms of the contribution of perceptual organisation and attentional factors in short-term memory.