Sex differences in impulsivity: a meta-analysis

Men are overrepresented in socially problematic behaviors, such as aggression and criminal behavior, which have been linked to impulsivity. Our review of impulsivity is organized around the tripartite theoretical distinction between reward hypersensitivity, punishment hyposensitivity, and inadequate effortful control. Drawing on evolutionary, criminological, developmental, and personality theories, we predicted that sex differences would be most pronounced in risky activities with men demonstrating greater sensation seeking, greater reward sensitivity, and lower punishment sensitivity. We predicted a small female advantage in effortful control. We analyzed 741 effect sizes from 277 studies, including psychometric and behavioral measures. Women were consistently more punishment sensitive (d = -0.33), but men did not show greater reward sensitivity (d = 0.01). Men showed significantly higher sensation seeking on questionnaire measures (d = 0.41) and on a behavioral risk-taking task (d = 0.36). Questionnaire measures of deficits in effortful control showed a very modest effect size in the male direction (d = 0.08). Sex differences were not found on delay discounting or executive function tasks. The results indicate a stronger sex difference in motivational rather than effortful or executive forms of behavior control. Specifically, they support evolutionary and biological theories of risk taking predicated on sex differences in punishment sensitivity. A clearer understanding of sex differences in impulsivity depends upon recognizing important distinctions between sensation seeking and impulsivity, between executive and effortful forms of control, and between impulsivity as a deficit and as a trait.     

药物成瘾者的感觉寻求人格特征

药物成瘾具有明显的心理成因,其中,成瘾者的人格特点,特别是感觉寻求人格特质,是导致药物成瘾的重要病原性因素。中脑边缘体多巴胺系统是感觉寻求行为与药物成瘾行为共同的脑奖赏系统,而多巴胺受体的遗传表达至少部分建立在个体执行新奇寻求和药物成瘾的行为上。感觉寻求特质对药物成瘾的作用受环境因素（父母,同伴）调节。文章也评述了感觉寻求相关研究所采用的测量工具。     

Is there a general task switching ability?

Participants were tested on two analogous task switching paradigms involving Shape/Size tasks and Vertical/Horizontal tasks, respectively, and three measures of psychometric intelligence, tapping fluid, crystallized and perceptual speed abilities. The paradigms produced similar patterns of group mean reaction times (RTs) and the vast majority of the participants showed switching cost (switch RT minus repeat RT), mixing cost (repeat RT minus single-task RT) and congruency effects. The shared intra-individual variance across paradigms and with psychometric intelligence served as criteria for general ability. Structural equations modeling indicated that switching cost with ample preparation ("residual cost") and mixing cost met these criteria. However, switching cost with little preparation and congruency effects were predominantly paradigm specific.     

Evaluation of behavioral measures of risk taking propensity with inner city adolescents

The current study examined the utility of behavioral measures of risk-taking propensity in the assessment of self-reported real-world risk-taking behaviors using a sample of 51 high-school-aged inner-city adolescents. Results indicated that performance on one behavioral measure, the balloon analogue risk task, accounted for unique variance in self-reported delinquency/safety risk behaviors as well as substance use risk behaviors, above and beyond that provided with demographics and self-report measures of risk-related constructs (i.e., impulsivity and sensation seeking). These results are discussed in relation to the potential utility of using a multimethod assessment approach for better understanding risk-taking vulnerability among adolescents.     

The four dimensions of sensation seeking: a confirmatory factor analysis

The factor structure of the Sensation Seeking Scale, Form V was obtained for a large Canadian sample consisting of 299 males and 439 females. Constrained maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that both male and female factors correspond to the four-dimensional model of sensation seeking postulated by Zuckerman (1979). These findings are in close agreement with previous reports of the factor structure and psychometric indices obtained with other cultural and national groups. However, the four factors accounted for only 21% of the variation for males and 20% for females. This finding is consistent with the modest KR-20 values obtained for the test subscales. Items displaying undesirable psychometric characteristics common to the present study and the extant literature are identified.     

Individual differences and risk taking in rock climbing

ObjectivesThe primary objective of the study was to challenge the notion that risk taking populations are homogenous, and that risk taking in sport necessarily reflects the expression of trait sensation seeking. A secondary objective was to examine the potential role of additional individual differences, such as self-efficacy and impulsivity, which have traditionally received limited attention.DesignQuantitative cross-sectional study.MethodsOne hundred and sixteen active rock climbers completed the Impulsive-Sensation Seeking Scale, a domain-specific self-efficacy scale, and behavioral measures of ability, experience and risk taking in rock climbing.ResultsThose high in self-efficacy and male climbers were likely to take greater risks; small associations with age, sensation seeking and impulsivity were also observed, though these were not in the hypothesized direction and failed to predict unique variance in regression analyses.ConclusionsTo challenge themselves, rock climbers may take calculated additional risks when they feel confident in their ability to manage those risks. Researchers should not assume homogeneity within risk taking populations, or that people take risks in all domains due to elevated sensation seeking needs.     

Sensation seeking among high- and low-risk sports participants

Investigated were the sensation seeking tendencies of a diverse sample of 166 athletes. The main aim of the study was to assess empirical support for Zuckermans (1994)Impulsive-Sensation-Seeking (ImpSS) theory and to replicate and extend previous research findings in this area using high- and low-risk sport participants. The Sensation Seeking Scale-V (Zuckerman et al., 1978) and the Impulsiveness Scale of the Impulsiveness-Venturesome-Empathy Scale (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1978), were administered to both male and female athletes currently engaged in one of eight sport disciplines: Hang-gliding, mountaineering, sky-diving, automobile racing, swimming, marathon running, aerobics or golf. Results provided support for the main thrust of Zuckermans ImpSS theory (a) that sensation seeking is integrated within a broader trait called Impulsive-Sensation Seeking; and (b) that total sensation seeking differentiated between high- and low-risk sport participants. On the other hand, these participants did not differ on the impulsiveness dimension. These and other findings are integrated with respect to Zuckermans (1994)Impulsive-Sensation Seeking model. Limitations of the present study and suggestions for future research are also discussed.     

The Relationships Between Sensation Seeking and Gender Role Orientations Among Turkish University Students

The relationships between sensation seeking and gender role orientation were examined among 325 Turkish university students. The Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (SSS-V; Zuckerman, Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seeking. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1994) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 42:155–162, 1974) were used for data collection. The dimensions of the SSS-V were Thrill and Adventure Seeking, Disinhibition, Experience Seeking, and Boredom Susceptibility. The ANOVA and MANOVA revealed main effects for gender and gender role orientation. As predicted, men reported higher levels of overall sensation seeking and Disinhibition than women did. Androgynous and masculine groups reported higher levels of overall sensation seeking, Disinhibition and Experience Seeking than the feminine group did. The effect of gender role orientation on Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Boredom Susceptibility was insignificant.     

Maximizing Scales Do Not Reliably Predict Maximizing Behavior in Decisions from Experience

In this paper, we explore the relationships between psychometric and behavioral measures of maximization in decisions from experience (DfE). In two experiments, we measured choice behavior in two experimental paradigms of DfE and self‐reported maximizing tendencies using three prominent scales of maximization. In the repeated consequentialist choice paradigm, participants made repeated choices between two unlabeled options and received consequential feedback on each trial. In the sampling paradigm, participants freely sampled from two options and received feedback on their sampling before making a single consequential choice. Individuals exhibited different degrees of maximizing behavior in both paradigms and across different payoff distributions, but none of the maximizing scales predicted this behavior. These results indicate that maximization scales address constructs that are different from the maximization behavior observed in DfE, and that these measures will need to be improved to reflect behavioral aspects of choice and search from experience. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Assessment of the Psychometric Properties of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Children

Sensation seeking is a trait that predicts a wide range of real-life risk behavior, such as substance abuse and gambling problems. Sensation seeking is often assessed with the Sensation Seeking Scale. Several adaptations of this questionnaire have been made, for example, to abbreviate it and to make it suitable for children. However, studies on sensation seeking in children are scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate sensation seeking in children (N = 158, M age = 11.4 years). The Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Children (BSSS–C) was translated into Dutch and psychometric properties were examined. Internal consistency was high, and the factor structure showed close resemblance with previous research. Test–retest and split-half reliabilities were acceptable, as was convergent validity with self-reported symptoms of psychopathology (attention problems and aggressive behavior). Construct validity was adequate, with more sensation seeking in boys than in girls. No effects of age were found. To sum up, sensation seeking can be measured in children in a valid and reliable way. The correlation of sensation seeking with high-risk behaviors emphasizes the importance of assessment early in development.     

Stimulus intensity reducers: Are they sensation seekers,extraverts, and strong nervous types?

211 university students completed Vando's (1970) Reducer-Augmenter Scale, Zuckerman's (1979) Sensation Seeking Scale, Eysenck and Eysenck's (1975) Personality Questionnaire, and Strelau's (1983) Temperament Inventory. As hypothesized, reducing was positively associated with sensation seeking, extraversion, and two of the four neo-Pavlovian dimensions of temperament: mobility and strength of excitation. Of the other two, strength of inhibition was not associated with reducing while sensitivity was negatively associated. Discriminant analysis of median-split reducing groups yielded a significant function defined by all variables except strength of inhibition. Univariate F-tests established that high reducers scored significantly more than low reducers (augmenters) on sensation seeking, strength of excitation, mobility, and extraversion, and significantly less on sensitivity. Two orthogonal dimensions consisting of reducing/sensation seeking and temperament/extraversion items defined the underlying structure. Results generalized across sex. The findings support the view that strong nervous temperament is implicated in reducing, and that reducers—not augmenters—are sensation seekers. Stimulus intensity reduction presumably creates CNS arousal deficits that require behavioural compensation. Future research linking the study variables to electrophysiological indices of reducing is necessary to further clarify the obtained relationships.     

Sensation seeking, recognition memory, and autonomic arousal

Substantial evidence shows that sensation seeking impacts memory; however, research has not examined how sensation seeking impacts automatic familiarity and conscious-controlled recollection memory systems. The present study (N = 80) examined high and low sensation seekers’ familiarity and recollection of high and low arousal images with negative valence using behavioral and skin conductance measures. Low sensation seekers had more accurate familiarity judgments to high than low arousal images, reflecting a heightened aversive motivational system. High sensation seekers showed an opposite pattern with memory enhancement for low arousal images, regardless of old-new status. The lack of any sensation seeking effects in relation to recollection judgments suggests that this personality trait is more influential on automatic than conscious controlled memory systems.     

Differential effects of personality traits related to the P-ImpUSS dimension on latent inhibition in healthy female subjects

An experiment was performed to investigate the effects of various personality traits (psychoticism, impulsiveness, sensation seeking) with substantial loadings on the P-ImpUSS dimension on latent inhibition (LI). LI refers to the finding that performance on a learning task is poorer for a preexposed irrelevant stimulus than for a novel stimulus. Forty-eight female subjects were tested by a rule-learning task that has been shown to reliably produce differential LI effects in low and high psychosis-prone normals. Results suggest that, besides psychoticism, the sensation seeking subfactor disinhibition is negatively associated with LI. Furthermore, stepwise regression analysis revealed that combining individual psychoticism and disinhibition scores results in a significant increase in explained variance of LI. These findings are discussed in terms of a relationship between distinct P-ImpUSS-related aspects of personality and LI.     

Intensity seeking and novelty seeking: Their relationship to adolescent risk behavior and occupational interests

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that individual differences in sensation seeking account for adolescents’ risk behavior and vocational interests. We relied on Arnett’s (1994) conceptualization of sensation seeking as involving a need for intensity and a need for novelty, neither of which includes the willingness to take risks. Self-report scales measuring intensity seeking, novelty seeking, impulsiveness, risk behavior and vocational interest were administered to 636 adolescents. New scales measuring intensity seeking (IS) and novelty seeking (NS) were used. Regression analyses showed that IS and to a lesser extent NS accounted for a small part of variance of risk behavior, independent of impulsiveness. IS and NS accounted for vocational interests. The discussion emphasizes the importance of disentangling sensation seeking as a trait from willingness to take risks when one intends to analyse the effect of the former on risk behavior.     

小鼠新颖寻求特质对酒精的运动激活效应的影响

新颖寻求(或感觉寻求)特质与许多成瘾药物的易感性密切相关。例如, 高、低新颖寻求动物对可卡因、苯丙胺和吗啡等成瘾药物的奖赏、运动激活、强化效应的反应存在差异。长期饮用酒精也容易成瘾, 但尚未发现关于新颖寻求特质影响酒精成瘾的报道。本实验采用药物成瘾研究中常用的自发活动模型, 考察了高、低新颖寻求动物在酒精急性处理、慢性处理和激发过程中的行为表现。实验过程中首先采用两种新颖寻求模型, 即新颖环境中自发活动模型和新颖客体偏爱模型, 将昆明小鼠分别区分为高、低自发活动组和高、低新颖客体偏爱组, 连续10天给予酒精(2g/kg/d, i.p.)或等量盐水处理, 戒断2天后所有小鼠接受酒精(2g/kg)激发。实验结果表明, 新颖环境低自发活动小鼠比新颖环境高自发活动小鼠对酒精急性、慢性处理导致的运动激活效应更敏感; 在酒精激发期前者的自发活动水平也高于后者。本实验结果说明新颖环境中自发活动特质影响动物对酒精导致的运动激活效应的反应。     

Intensity seeking and novelty seeking: Their relationship to adolescent risk behavior and occupational interests

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that individual differences in sensation seeking account for adolescents’ risk behavior and vocational interests. We relied on Arnett’s (1994) conceptualization of sensation seeking as involving a need for intensity and a need for novelty, neither of which includes the willingness to take risks. Self-report scales measuring intensity seeking, novelty seeking, impulsiveness, risk behavior and vocational interest were administered to 636 adolescents. New scales measuring intensity seeking (IS) and novelty seeking (NS) were used. Regression analyses showed that IS and to a lesser extent NS accounted for a small part of variance of risk behavior, independent of impulsiveness. IS and NS accounted for vocational interests. The discussion emphasizes the importance of disentangling sensation seeking as a trait from willingness to take risks when one intends to analyse the effect of the former on risk behavior.     

Experimental validation of two MIQ scales

Two Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ) scales, Creativity and Independence were validated by experiment. Subjects were exposed to four task conditions representing joint combinations of high or low levels of Creativity and Independence. As a behavioral criterion of preference, subjects were then required to work for 12 sessions, each session under any (of the four) task condition of their choice. The behavioral results were consistent with the subjects' MIQ score levels on the two scales, thereby validating the scales.     

Working memory and behavioral inhibition in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): an examination of varied central executive demands,construct overlap,and task impurity

The stop-signal paradigm is the premier metric of behavioral inhibition in contemporary attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) research. The stop-signal paradigm’s choice-reaction time component, however, arguably places greater demands on working memory processes (e.g., controlled-focused attention) relative to alternative inhibition metrics (i.e., go/no-go (GNG) tasks), and consequently obscures conclusions about inhibition and working memory deficits in affected children. The current study, therefore, aimed to determine whether shared variance between stop-signal behavioral inhibition and working memory performance in children with ADHD reflects overlap between the working memory and inhibition constructs or insufficient specificity of the stop-signal paradigm. Fifty-five children (8–12 years) with and without ADHD were administered established phonological (PH) and visuospatial (VS) working memory measures, as well as stop-signal and GNG tasks that vary with respect to demands on controlled-focused attention. Although working memory and GNG performance each uniquely predicted children’s inattention, stop-signal task performance was not a significant predictor of unique variance in inattention, above and beyond variance associated with working memory. Collectively, these findings suggest that performance on the stop-signal task, compared to the GNG task, is confounded by greater demands associated with working memory and consequently reflects an impure estimate of the inhibition construct.     

A Self‐Regulatory Model of Behavioral Disinhibition in Late Adolescence: Integrating Personality Traits,Externalizing Psychopathology,and Cognitive Capacity

ABSTRACT Two samples with heterogeneous prevalence of externalizing psychopathology were used to investigate the structure of self‐regulatory models of behavioral disinhibition and cognitive capacity. Consistent with expectations, structural equation modeling in the first sample (N=541) showed a hierarchical model with 3 lower order factors of impulsive sensation seeking, antisociality/unconventionality, and lifetime externalizing problem counts, with a behavioral disinhibition superfactor best accounted for the pattern of covariation among 6 disinhibited personality trait indicators and 4 externalizing problem indicators. The structure was replicated in a second sample (N=463) and showed that the behavioral disinhibition superfactor, and not the lower order impulsive sensation seeking, antisociality/unconventionality, and externalizing problem factors, was associated with lower IQ, reduced short‐term memory capacity, and reduced working memory capacity. The results provide a systemic and meaningful integration of major self‐regulatory influences during a developmentally important stage of life.