The lntergenerational transmission of family violence: The long-term effects of aggressive behavior

This paper examines the contention that family violence is passed down from generation to generation. The sample was primarily nonclinical and was composed of 14 clients of community guidance clinics and 82 members of a randomly selected control group. The primary hypothesis that individuals who are exposed to a high degree of physical punishment as children are more likely to resort to family violence as adults was supported. Studies of the modeling of aggression were examined to suggest factors which may mediate the hypothesized relationship. It was found that respondents who had grown up in an environment characterized by either low family warmth or high stress in combination with exposure to a high degree of parental punishment were more likely to use physical punishment in their own families. Also, family violence was more likely to be transmitted in same-sex rather than cross-sex linkages.     

Self-concept and violent delinquency in urban African-American adolescent males

African-American adolescent males experience a disproportionate rate of victimization associated with and arrest for violent crime. This study examined the between self-concept and violent delinquency within a group of 155 urban African-American adolescent males. Walter Reckless's 1967 containment theory, which suggest that a positive self-concept will insulate a juvenile from delinquency and crime, served as the theoretical frame of reference. The participants included 155 African-American males aged 13 to 19 years who completed the Adolescent Life Survey, developed by the investigators, and the Tennessee Self-concept Scale. Quantitative measurments of self-concept and delinquency were obtained. In general, the findings did not support containment theory. However, the study does present new data regarding serious violent delinquency.     

Romantic relationships of young people with childhood and adolescent onset antisocial behavior problems

Using prospective longitudinal data from the Christchurch Health and Development Study, this paper examines the extent to which early onset, life course persistent and adolescent limited antisocial behavior problems place young people at risk of violent and unsatisfactory romantic relationships in early adulthood. Results revealed the presence of clear linear associations between the developmental timing of antisocial behavior and later partnership risks, with these risks including partner violence perpetration and victimization, interpartner conflict, and increased ambivalence about the relationship. Young people with childhood onset antisocial behavior problems reported higher rates of partnership difficulties than young people with adolescent limited antisocial behavior problems, while those with adolescent limited antisocial behavior reported higher levels of partnership difficulties than young people without a history of antisocial behavior problems. These associations persisted even after extensive control for a range of social, family, and individual factors that were correlated with the timing of antisocial behavior. Results highlight the importance of distinguishing between early and late onset antisocial behavior, and provide further support for existing life course models of the development of antisocial behavior problems in children and adolescents.     

The dyadic interaction of persons with violent and nonviolent histories

College students were classified as having violent or nonviolent histories on the basis of their responses to the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS). Four groups of heterosexual pairs were then recalled for further testing: violent males paired with violent females, violent males with nonviolent females, nonviolent males with violent females, and nonviolent males with nonviolent females. These pairs were asked to role play their attempt to resolve an hypothetical conflict while being videotaped. Subsequently, their behavior was recorded into the three summary categories that emcompass the Marital Interaction Coding System. Persons with violent histories were more frequently negative than those with nonviolent histories while interacting with an individual having a similar history. This result supports the validity of the CTS by demonstrating that it is capable of predicting behavior during the verbal resolution of a conflict. However, the results suggested that the nature of the contribution to the aversiveness of the interaction may be different for males and females. Overall, these results offer some support for the notion that some individuals learn aversive behavior as a general behavioral style for controlling their environments with the probability of performing coercive behavior partially a function of other individuals.     

The violent adolescent: the urge to destroy versus the urge to feel alive

The dynamics of adolescent violence are explored from theoretical and developmental perspectives applied to the review of psychoanalytic studies of violence and three cases: the case of Willie Bosket, presented in Fox Butterfield's All God's Children, an adolescent treated by one of the authors, and observation of staff dynamics in a juvenile detention facility. Studies indicate that violence is used to preserve a sense of existence and psychic equilibrium as well as to express rage and destroy unwanted projected parts of the self and dangerous intrusions into a fragile self-coherence. In the case studies, violent activity serves a number of psychic functions: it leads to high arousal states and the feeling of being alive thereby disavowing underlying feelings of deadness and depression, it serves to contain and discharge overwhelming chaotic and rageful feelings, and it enacts object ties and the unconscious fantasies of the parent. Staff dynamics in a treatment setting for juvenile offenders reflect the intrapsychic dynamics of the juvenile offender prone to acting out, projection, hypervigilance to signs of disrespect, and disavowal of unwanted affects including helplessness and vulnerability.     

Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: a review

Despite increasing knowledge of social and biological risk factors for antisocial and violent behavior, we know surprisingly little about how these two sets of risk factors interact. This paper documents 39 empirical examples of biosocial interaction effects for antisocial behavior from the areas of genetics, psychophysiology, obstetrics, brain imaging, neuropsychology, neurology, hormones, neurotransmitters, and environmental toxins. Two main themes emerge. First, when biological and social factors are grouping variables and when antisocial behavior is the outcome, then the presence of both risk factors exponentially increases the rates of antisocial and violent behavior. Second, when social and antisocial variables are grouping variables and biological functioning is the outcome, then the social variable invariably moderates the antisocial–biology relationship such that these relationships are strongest in those from benign home backgrounds. It is argued that further biosocial research is critical for establishing a new generation of more successful intervention and prevention research.     

Substance use/abuse as a predictor to illegal and violent behavior: A review of the relevant literature

The preponderance of the research evidence supports the conclusion that abuse of certain types of illicit drugs, separately from the abuse of alcohol, predisposes to subsequent violent behavior. The relationship of cocaine/crack to violent crime has been established more clearly for users of crack in inner city areas than it has for those who are users of other forms of cocaine in the general population.In regard to any race/ethnic or socioeconomic factors in the relationships between substance use/abuse and violent behavior, most clearly established is that a higher proportion of young Black males, compared to other race/ethnic groups, are actively involved in dealing cocaine/crack in some inner city poverty areas.As for gender differences, the research evidence indicates that alcohol abuse as a predictor to and a precipitant of violent behavior, is more clearly established for males than for females. Drug abuse, as distinct from alcohol abuse, has been found to predict subsequent violent behavior, for females as well as for males. “Co-morbidity,” the combination of substance use with and psychopathology, appears more likely to predict for females to later violent behavior. Psychopathology and mental health problems are less likely to predict occurrence of either violent or criminal behavior in the future than are either alcohol abuse or drug abuse.     

Intergenerational transmission of theory-of-mind

We examined whether individual differences in children's performance on a scaled battery of theory-of-mind tasks was predicted by parents' performance on an adult theory-of-mind task. Forty-six 3-year-old children and their parents participated in this study when children were aged 2;11 to 4;0. Thirty dyads returned 6 months later for a second assessment. After statistically controlling for relevant covariates, we detected a positive correlation between parents' and children's theory-of-mind scores. The correlation was significant at both time points, and was robust when data were aggregated across the two sessions. These results provide some evidence for intergenerational transmission of theory-of-mind abilities in a typically developing sample, and possible mechanisms underlying this relation are discussed.     

The relationship between family aggression history and expressed aggression among college males

The relationship between family of origin aggression and aggression across numerous relationship types was examined among a sample of 197 college‐aged males. Participants completed a self‐report questionnaire assessing the frequency and severity of family aggression (aggression between parents, parental aggression directed toward participants), as well as the frequency and severity of participants' aggression across a number of relationship types (dating, friends, strangers, people in bars, co‐workers, bosses, police officers). The results of the present study indicate that a substantial proportion of college‐aged males report a history of aggressive behavior, both in dating/spousal relationship and other‐relationship types. Analyses revealed that observing parental aggression and receiving aggression from parents was related to aggression in dating relationships. However, only received aggression from parents was related to more general aggressiveness in other non–dating/spousal relationship types. The pattern of findings also suggest that it is important to assess the aggressive behavior of both parents to get a better understanding of the link between family aggression and later expressed aggression. Aggr. Behav. 25:255–267, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Increasing prosocial behavior and academic achievement among adolescent African American males

African American adolescents disproportionately perform poorly compared to peers in both behavioral and academic aspects of their educational experience. In this study, African American male students participated in an after-school program involving tutoring, group counseling, and various enrichment activities. All students were assessed regarding their behavioral changes using attendance, discipline referrals, suspensions, and expulsions reports. The Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (KBIT) and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (KTEA) were used to assess the adolescents' improvement in their skills in reading and mathematics. After the end of the two-year program, initial results showed that the adolescents had increased their daily attendance, decreased discipline referrals, and had no suspensions or expulsions. These results also indicated that although the students entered the program at different skill levels, they were assessed to have the ability to function at their appropriate grade level. Their average improvement in basic skills was at least two grade levels. Implications drawn from the findings include: (a) there is a need to emphasize appropriate assessment prior to beginning a skill improvement program; (b) a need to emphasize the use of individualized learning plans and tutors; and (c) a need to further investigate the role of assessment and intervention in after-school programming in order to close the achievement gap.     

Low blood glucose nadir in the glucose tolerance test and homicidal spouse abuse

The purpose of the study was to investigate whether homicidal spouse abuse offenders with a low blood glucose nadir in glucose tolerance test (GTT) showed more instances of repeated and severe aggression and criminality than counterparts with more normal GTTs. An attempt was also made to determine whether personality profiles on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) differentiated between the groups. Altogether, 60 male homicidal offenders were studied. Those with low values had been repeatedly violent and impulsive under the influence of alcohol in relationships but also outside the home. The homicidal act usually occurred under the influence of alcohol with no clear recollection. These offenders had normal MMPI but some of them showed motor restlessness and irritability during the GTTs. The possible connections with enhanced glucose and abnormal brain serotonin metabolism among habitually violent and impulsive offenders are discussed.     

Motor impairment and antisocial behavior in adolescent males at high risk for schizophrenia

A familial link between schizophrenia and antisocial behavior has been established (e.g., Silverton, 1985). This study examined this relationship in a Danish cohort. The subjects were 36 high-risk males (offspring of a schizzophrenic parent) and 36 low-risk males (offspring of parents without psychopathology). This high-risk subjects exhibited more antisocial behavior than the low-risk subjects. We tested the hypothesis of a correlation between neurointegrative deficits, as defined by motor impairment, and antisocial behavior, rated at ages 10–13, in subjects at genetic risk for schizophrenia. Path analyses were conducted from motor impairment at 1 year and motor impairment at 10–13 years to antisocial behavior separately for high-risk and low-risk subjects. Adolescent motor impairment was a significant predictor of antisocial behavior for high-risk subjects. Motor impairment at 1 year was also associated with antisocial behavior for these subjects, although the association was partly due to the indirect effects of motor impairment at 1 year on motor impairment at 10–13 years, which, in turn, was associated with changes in antisocial behavior. As predicted, none of the path coefficients nor the effect coefficient was significant for low-risk subjects.     

Intergenerational transmission of neuropsychological executive functioning

Relationships between parent and child executive functioning were examined, controlling for the critical potential confound of IQ, in a family study involving 434 children (130 girls and 304 boys) and 376 parents from 204 community recruited families at high risk for the development of substance use disorder. Structural equation modeling found evidence of separate executive functioning and intelligence (IQ) latent variables. Mother’s and father’s executive functioning were associated with child’s executive functioning (beta = 0.34 for father–child and 0.51 for mother–child), independently of parental IQ, which as expected was associated with child’s IQ (beta = 0.52 for father–child and 0.54 for mother–child). Familial correlations also showed a significant relationship of executive functioning between parents and offspring. These findings clarify that key elements of the executive functioning construct are reliably differentiable from IQ, and are transmitted in families. This work supports the utility of the construct of executive function in further study of the mechanisms and etiology of externalizing psychopathologies.     

Differential reactions of men and women to realism,physical damage,and emotionality in violent films

Community college students rated brief segments of violence from films selected to represent a variety of approaches to the depiction of violence. Men and women differed substantially on these sequences, men seeing them as more enjoyable, amusing, realistic, and emotional. Men also showed less inclination to restrict showing of such sequences to children, on television, or by X-rating. While no sex differences appeared in ratings of suffering or overall appraisals of violence, women' enjoyment ratings declined precipitously for the films rated as depicting more suffering, while those of men did not. However, both men and women saw more violence in sequences emphasizing suffering of characters, even when this ran counter to actual physical damage depicted. For men, enjoyment of these violent media excerpts and self-reports of recent physical violence were essentially unrelated, while women showed highly significant positive relations for the two variables. These findings suggest that the dynamics of violence for men and women may be different enough to make differential analysis by sex an especially productive research tactic.     

Parents and peer group as mediators of the effect of community structure on adolescent problem behavior

Used a sample of 207 single-parent families residing in 104 small, Midwestern communities to test hypotheses regarding the link between community context and adolescent conduct problems and psychological distress. For boys, community disadvantage had a direct affect on psychological distress, while it indirectly boosted the probability of conduct problems by disrupting parenting and increasing affiliation with deviant peers. Community disadvantage was unrelated to the deviant behavior or emotional well-being of girls. Proportion of single-parent households in the community had a direct effect on girls' conduct problems. It also contributed indirectly to girls' conduct problems by increasing the probability of involvement with deviant peers. Possible explanations for these gender differences are provided. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Miami, November 1994. Work on this project was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (MH48165) and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD27724). Journal Paper No. 16629 of the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economic Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 3320.     

Friendly fire: Longitudinal effects of exposure to violent video games on aggressive behavior in adolescent friendship dyads

Research on gaming effects has focused on adolescence, a developmental period in which peer relationships become increasingly salient. However, the impact of peers on the effects of violent gaming on adolescents has been understudied. This study examined whether adolescents’ exposure to violent video games predicted their own and their friend's aggression one year later. Among 705 gaming adolescents, 141 dyads were identified based on reciprocated best friend nominations (73.8% male, M_age = 13.98). Actor‐Partner Interdependence Models indicated that adolescent males’ (but not females’) exposure to violent games positively predicted the aggression of their best friend 1 year later. This effect appeared regardless of whether the friends played video games together or not. The study illustrates the importance of peers in the association between violent gaming and aggression.     

Attentional bias to violent images in survivors of dating violence

This study investigated the time-course characteristics of attentional bias, such as vigilance and maintenance, towards violent stimuli in dating violence (DV) survivors. DV survivors with PTSD symptoms (DV-PTSD group; n=14), DV survivors without PTSD symptoms (Trauma Control group; n=14), and individuals who were never exposed to dating violence (NDV group; n=15) viewed slides that presented four categories of images (violent, dysphoric, positive, and neutral) per slide, for ten seconds. Our results revealed that the DV-PTSD group spent more time on violent stimuli than did the Trauma Control or NDV groups. The DV survivors, both with and without PTSD symptoms, spent more time on dysphoric stimuli and less time on happy stimuli than did the NDV group. In addition to the effects of PTSD, researchers should also be considering the effects of simple traumatic exposure.