Dimensional structure and psychopathology correlates of the fear survey schedule (FSS-III) in a phobic population: A factorial definition of agoraphobia

The responses of 703 non-institutionalized phobics to the Fear Survey Schedule (FSS-III) were factor-analyzed utilizing a principal components procedure. Factors previously identified in student, adolescent and ‘non-phobic patient’ populations—(I) Social Anxiety, (III) Fears related to Bodily Injury, Death and Illness. (IV) Fear of Display to Sexual and Aggressive Scenes, (V) Small Animal Fears—were replicated. Additionally, an Agoraphobia (II) factor, corroborating recent findings by Hallam and Hafner (1978), and pointing to the specificity of this fear, emerged. Due to substantially high intercorrelations found, the Social Inadequacy dimension of the Symptom Checklist (SCL-90) and the Social Anxiety scale (I), on the one hand, and the Agoraphobic dimension of the SCL-90 and the Agoraphobia scale (II), on the other, could be used interchangeably with phobic populations. A higher-order factor analysis run on psychopathology scales employed, including factored FSS scales, yielded three components, (1) Neuroticism, (2) Phobia and (3) Agoraphobia. Opportunity was taken to define the Agoraphobic Syndrome empirically. A specific Somatization dimension was as highly related to Neuroticism, as to the higher-order Agoraphobic cluster, clearly supporting clinical observations with regard to the Agoraphobic syndrome. Some interesting findings are focused upon and discussed.     

Embodied Domestics,Embodied Politics: Women,Home, and Agoraphobia

Agoraphobia is commonly considered to be a fear of outside, open, or crowded spaces, and is treated with therapies that work on acclimating the agoraphobic to external places she would otherwise avoid. I argue, however, that existential phenomenology provides the resources for an alternative interpretation and treatment of agoraphobia that locates the problem of the disorder not in something lying beyond home, but rather in a flawed relationship with home itself. More specifically, I demonstrate that agoraphobia is the lived body expression of a person who has developed an inward-turning tendency with respect to being-at-home, and who finds herself, as a result, vulnerable and even incapacitated when attempting to emerge into the public arena as a fully participatory agent. I consider this thesis in light of the fact that since World War I agoraphobia has been diagnosed significantly more in women than in men; indeed, one study found women to be 89% more likely than men to suffer from agoraphobia. I conclude that agoraphobia is a disorder that stands as an emblematic expression of the ongoing pathology of being a woman in contemporary society–a disorder that reflects that even today women belong to a political world in which they are not able to feel properly at-home.     

Cultural effects on the expression of some fears by Chinese and British female students

To compare the culturally acquired aspects of fears in two different cultures, the author gave an augmented version of the I. M. Marks and A. M. Mathews Fear Scale (1979) to 50 female students in China and 49 female students in England. When the rank ordering of the fears measured in both groups was compared, the author found a high positive correlation, suggesting cross-cultural consistencies in the ranking of fearful objects. Both groups most feared social criticism and appraisal by others, followed by fears of blood, pain, and injury. The students feared least aspects related to agoraphobia. When the expressed levels of fear were compared, the Chinese students had significantly lower fear scores for many items. The reasons for those scores are discussed in terms of lower actual fear levels, moderating response sets, or socialization practices. The fears that showed no cultural differences were the ones that had early biologically relevance, such as fear of the dark and of high places. Only the socially learned fears showed cultural differences.     

The relationship of television viewing time to scores on the Fear Survey Schedule

The responses of 460 undergraduates enrolled in introductory psychology to the Wolpe-Lang Fear Survey Schedule (FSS) were examined to determine the effect of television viewing time. Contrary to predictions of cultivation theory, heavy viewers (more than four hours daily) did not obtain significantly higher total fear scores than light (less than two hours) or medium viewers (two to four hours). Similarly, the scores on five FSS Subscales—Social Phobia, Agoraphobia, Fear of Bodily Injury, Illness and Death, Fear of Sexual and Aggressive Scenes, and Fear of Harmless Animals—did not reveal any differences related to viewing time. However, the total fear score of female respondents increased with viewing time and was significantly higher than male scores; significant sex differences were found in four subscales as well. Implications for future use of the FSS and cultivation theory were discussed.     

A Canonical-Correlation Analysis of 16 Fear Factors and the MMPI

To determine clinical correlates of 16 fear factors of the Wolpe-Lang Fear Survey Schedule, the fear factor and MMPI scores of 92 psychiatric inpatients were subjected to a canonical-correlation analysis. The results produced three combinations of scores which yielded statistically reliable canonical-correlation coefficients: three fear factors related to psychotic levels of personality disorganization; two related to fairly directly experienced neurotic anxiety; and five related to neurotic levels of anxiety “bound” by somatic complaints. The results suggest different treatment approaches for different patterns of expressed fears. The interpretation of several of the factors (previously related to clinical status) awaits further research.     

Accuracy of fear inventories and self-efficacy scales in predicting agoraphobic behavior

Self-rating fear inventories are widely used as primary dependent measures of therapeutic change in agoraphobia, but objective behavioral evidence of their validity has been largely unavailable. In contrast, self-efficacy scales are rarely used in agoraphobia research despite evidence that they correlate highly with agoraphobic behavior. In the present study, 37 agoraphobics completed the Marks and Mathews Fear Questionnaire, the Mobility Inventory for Agoraphobia, a set of agoraphobia-related self-efficacy scales, and a set of agoraphobia-related behavioral avoidance tests in the natural community environment. The Fear Questionnaire and Mobility Inventory items proved to be only modestly predictive of agoraphobic dysfunction, whereas the self-efficacy scales were highly predictive of agoraphobic dys-function. Although self-efficacy scales are not intended to be substitute measures of behavior, the findings indicate that they estimate agoraphobia much more accurately than do the standard fear inventories.     

Empirical fear profiles among American youth

Fears among children can range from relatively innocuous fears of simple objects to significant phobias that affect youths' everyday functioning in the home, school, or community environments. This study investigated empirically derived fear profiles among American youth ages 7-19 (N=556). Based upon youths' scores on the 5 factors of the Fear Survey Schedule for Children-II (FSSC-II; Burnham & Gullone (Behav Res Ther, 35, 1997)), multistage Euclidean grouping was applied and produced 5 replicable fear cluster profiles with unique contours. Logistic regression odds ratios revealed specific associations of profile group membership with demographic characteristics such as child age, sex, and ethnicity.     

Phobic dimensions: IV. The structure of animal fears

Research designed to determine the number and kind of dimensions underlying self-reports of animal fears is relatively rare. To contribute further knowledge to this area of study, Davey's methodology [Davey, G. C. L. (1994a). Self-reported fears to common indigenous animals in an adult UK population: the role of disgust sensitivity. British Journal of Psychology, 85, 541-554.] was improved. Principal components analysis with Varimax rotation of the self-ratings to items of Davey's Animal Fears Questionnaire returned by Ss from a Dutch community sample (N = 214) revealed four reliable, relatively independent dimensions: (1) fear-relevant animals, (2) dry or non-slimy invertebrates, (3) slimy or wet looking animals and (4) farm animals. Replicating Davey (1994a), females, relative to males, reported higher levels on most fear items. Principal components analysis with Oblimin rotation involving animal fears scales (derived from the dimensions identified in the present study), dimensions of non-animal fears, disgust sensitivity, sex-role orientation and the major dimensions of personality from the Eysenckian system revealed 4 higher-order factors, namely specific animals fears, positive affectivity, toughmindedness and negative affectivity. At an even higher level, these 4 higher-order factors merged into two factors: (1) a bipolar positive affectivity versus neuroticism/general emotionality/negative affectivity factor and (2) a toughmindedness dimension. Studies such as these contribute in helping provide the elements of the hierarchical model of fears proposed by Taylor [Taylor, S. (1998). The hierarchic structure of fears. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 205-214.]. Findings across different studies suggest that there are at least 5 first-order dimensions of animal fears, the above 4 and predatory (fierce) animals, that may be included in such a model.     

The relationship between 16 fear factors and psychiatric status

Although originally designed as a guide to therapy, the Wolpe-Lang Fear Survey Schedule (FSS) has been the subject of increasing study of its psychometric characteristics. A recent factor analysis of the records of psychiatric patients yielded 16 fear factors. The present study attempted to evaluate the clinical relevance of these factors by comparing the factor scores of adult psychiatric outpatients (AOP) with those of parents of child psychiatry patients (CPC). On 13 of the 16 factors the AOP group scored higher (with 3 of these 13 differences modulated by sex), indicating a strikingly consistent relationship between clinical status and the fear factors. These results suggest that future research of the patterns of fear factor scores as they relate to clinically relevant variables might well be fruitful. In the present study, females scored higher than males on all 16 fear factors (with 3 of these 16 differences appearing only in the AOP group). These results suggest the importance of treating sex as a moderator variable in future research on the FSS and its factors.     

A factor analysis of mental abilities and personality traits

The relationship between measures of verbal fluency and certain personality traits is examined by factor techniques. From a matrix of eight factor scores derived from mental tests plus five personality scores, six factors were obtained. An oblique solution lends limited support to the hypothesized relationship between the two domains.This study was supported by a grant from the Research Foundation of the University of Utah.Currently on leave of absence with the National Research Council.     

The predictive power of Cattell's personality questionnaires: An eighteen month prospective study

An 18 month prospective study of personality traits (as assessed by Cattell's Children's Personality Questionnaire and Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire) was conducted on twin pairs and their parents. The primary personality trait scores for both the adults and children had relatively low stability over the 18 month interval; in addition, in some cases, the inter-factor stability coefficients exceeded the intra-factor coefficients. This finding, coupled with the lack of parent/offspring similarity for the primary personality traits, places in question the predictive power of Cattell's personality questionnaires. A factor analysis on the original items indicated that 5 oblique factors for the children and 6 oblique factors for the adults need be retained. These factors were not only more stable than the primary trait scores, but they also did not have such high inter-factor stability coefficients. Except for Neuroticism and IQ, the adult and juvenile factors do not show structural similarities.     

The fears of the counsellors: a qualitative study

The author begins this paper with the claim that fear is a relatively under-researched topic in counselling despite its prevalence. Ten counsellors were interviewed concerning their fears encountered in their therapeutic work. Participants were also asked what they had found to be helpful and unhelpful when attempting to deal with these fears. Fears reported are categorised into fears of losing control, fears of being separated from a group by way of disapproval or rejection, and fears of physical and/or sexual assault. Substantive quotations are provided from the interviews. The author concludes with the contention that a deeper consideration and enhanced understanding of counsellors' fears will assist counsellors and their supervisors to accord fear an appropriate and healthy respect without becoming unduly frightened in the process.     

The General Factor of Personality: A critical test

The present study provides evidence supporting the presence of a General Factor of Personality (GFP), which has been proposed to represent the apex of the hierarchy of personality traits. Furthermore, the construct validity of this general factor is assessed to address recent criticisms suggesting that the GFP may merely be a statistical artefact rather than a genuine higher-order personality dimension. In this study, two samples of monozygotic (MZ) and same-sex dizygotic (DZ) twins completed the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-IR), assessing individual differences in the Big Five traits of personality, and the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Problems-Differential Questionnaire (DAPP-DQ) measuring variance in abnormal personality traits. First unrotated factors were extracted from each of the two measures separately within each sample. Correlations between these factors were significant and high in both samples (.78 and .77), indicating that the factors represent similar constructs. The manner in which these findings help to validate the GFP is discussed.     

Response styles of a patient population on the fear survey schedule

The 122 Item Fear Survey was administered to 185 patients of a national sample of psychologists and psychiatrists. Psychotics and neurotics scored significantly higher on total fear responses than did a behavioral disorder population. Differences in response styles between men and women were found which indicated that women generally related their fears more easily than men. The data were factor analyzed and three factors were revealed that accounted for 90 per cent of the variance. The factors were named as follows:

1.

1. Fears related to losing status and adequacy socially;     

Contemporary Fears of Children and Adolescents: Coping and Resiliency in the 21st Century

This study was prompted by the continual exposure of youth to disasters (e.g., 9/11, Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina, school violence) and the call for revisions in fear assessments to reflect contemporary fears. Fears of 1,033 students in Grades 2–12 were examined using the American Fear Survey Schedule for Children (J. J. Burnham, 2005). Results indicated that new fears have emerged in the 21st century, alerting counselors to consider preventative and intervention activities to address contemporary fears.     

A psychometric reanalysis of the Albany Panic and Phobia Questionnaire

The psychometric properties of the 27-item Albany Panic and Phobia Questionnaire (APPQ) were evaluated in 1930 outpatients with DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders. Although prior findings of a 3-factor latent structure were upheld in several replications (Social Phobia, Agoraphobia, Interoceptive), three items failed to load on their predicted factor (Interoceptive). Multiple-groups CFAs indicated that the measurement properties of the APPQ were invariant in male and female patients, with the exception of an intercept of one item from the Agoraphobia scale which evidenced bias against females. The three APPQ dimensions were consistently associated with high levels of scale reliability and factor determinacy. Strong evidence of concurrent validity of the Social Phobia and Agoraphobia factors was obtained in relation to interview and questionnaire measures. Although the Interoceptive factor was more strongly related to criterion measures of anxiety sensitivity and fear of panic than Social Phobia, the Agoraphobia factor had the strongest relationships with these validity indices. The results are discussed in regard to psychometric implications for the APPQ and conceptual issues pertaining to the discriminant validity of fear of agoraphobic situations and fear of sensation-producing activities.     

An experimental analysis of chronic posttraumatic stress among adolescents

The Fear Survey Schedule (FSS), State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and the Lebanese Fear Inventory (FLI, an endemic index of war fears) were administered to a sample of Lebanese junior high school students 27 days before the Israeli invasion of 1982. Six months after the disengagement of forces, the investigator located 16 subjects who had been in West Beirut throughout the siege and 46 subjects who had evacuated to safer environs. The inventories were readministered to the subjects according to a counterbalanced regimen and no significant differences were noted between the preinvasion scores of the evacuees and nonevacuees or between the postinvasion scores of the evacuees and nonevacuees. No significant differences were observed when the aggregate FSS and STAI estimates that were recorded before and after the invasion were compared. On the other hand, the aggregate LFI scores were significantly lower after the invasion. The results are discussed from within the social learning framework of fear acquisition.     

Components of dental fear in adults?

The functional relatedness between dental fear and multiple other fears was studied in a normative sample of 285 undergraduates. Rachman and Lopatka's work on the inter-dependence of multiple fears within individuals, as well as Lang's bioinformational theory of emotion, provided a theoretical background for this investigation. Fears about social contact, pain, mutilation (e.g. injury, blood, disfigurement), and being closed-in were assessed within the realm of verbal report; they were studied as possible components and/or concomitants of the dental fear construct. Multiple regression analyses with these variables utilized the Dental Fear Survey total score as a criterion variable. Fear of pain was found to be the most significant predictor of dental fear in both males and females. For females only, mutilation fear was the next strongest determinant. Fear of being closed-in was an additional significant dental fear predictor for both sexes. The possible role of social fears in the manifestation of dental fear was not confirmed and awaits further investigation. Results were consistent with the idea that there may often be a moderate degree of functional dependence between dental fear and the other fears identified here.     

Scary and nasty beasts: Self-reported fear and disgust of common phobic animals

Animal phobias are one of the most prevalent mental disorders. We analysed how fear and disgust, two emotions involved in their onset and maintenance, are elicited by common phobic animals. In an online survey, the subjects rated 25 animal images according to elicited fear and disgust. Additionally, they completed four psychometrics, the Fear Survey Schedule II (FSS), Disgust Scale – Revised (DS-R), Snake Questionnaire (SNAQ), and Spider Questionnaire (SPQ). Based on a redundancy analysis, fear and disgust image ratings could be described by two axes, one reflecting a general negative perception of animals associated with higher FSS and DS-R scores and the second one describing a specific aversion to snakes and spiders associated with higher SNAQ and SPQ scores. The animals can be separated into five distinct clusters: (1) non-slimy invertebrates; (2) snakes; (3) mice, rats, and bats; (4) human endo- and exoparasites (intestinal helminths and louse); and (5) farm/pet animals. However, only snakes, spiders, and parasites evoke intense fear and disgust in the non-clinical population. In conclusion, rating animal images according to fear and disgust can be an alternative and reliable method to standard scales. Moreover, tendencies to overgeneralize irrational fears onto other harmless species from the same category can be used for quick animal phobia detection.     

The dimensional structure of people's fears,threats, and concerns and their relationship with right‐wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation

Most theories addressing the topic have proposed that threat and fear underlie right‐wing authoritarianism (RWA), and many empirical findings have been consistent with this proposition. Important questions, however, remain unanswered, such as whether RWA is associated with fear and threat in general or only specific kinds of fear and threat. Theories of RWA generate markedly different predictions on this issue, particularly with respect to social or personal fears, and whether the association would also hold for the closely related construct of social dominance orientation (SDO). We investigated the issue by asking 463 undergraduate students to rate their feelings of fear, concern, and anxiety to a comprehensive 93‐item list of potential fears and threats, which were formulated as either personal or social. Exploratory factors analysis identified five distinct fear–threat factors: Harm to Self, Child, or Country; Personal and Relationship Failures; Environmental and Economic Fears; Political and Personal Uncertainties; and Threats to Ingroup. All the fear–threat factors were correlated with RWA, with the strongest correlations being for Threats to Ingroup, and with stronger effects for social than for personal fears. None of the fear factors correlated with SDO. These relationships were not affected by controlling for Social Desirability or Emotional Stability (EMS). When the intercorrelations between fear factors and EMS were controlled using ridge regression, only Threats to Ingroup predicted RWA. Structural equation modeling indicated good fit for a model in which low levels of EMS had a significant path to Threats to Ingroup, which in turn had a significant path to RWA, and EMS having a significant though weak indirect (fully mediated) inverse effect on RWA. Implications of these findings for theories of authoritarianism and future research are discussed.