Scarce Foods are Perceived as Having More Calories

People vary dramatically in their calorie estimates of food depending on the information available to them. Prior research has focused on information that is normatively relevant to the number of calories a food contains (e.g., fat content, serving size). The current research examines whether information that is normatively irrelevant to the number of calories a food contains—such as its availability—might also shape people's calorie estimates. Three studies found that a food perceived as limited in availability leads people to estimate the food to contain more calories. Serial mediation analyses revealed that this effect occurs because scarce food is seen as more valuable and expensive, which subsequently induces feelings of resource deprivation. This sense of resource deprivation, in turn, leads to motivated perception, whereby higher calorie estimates are the result of people wanting to acquire more resources. The findings provide insight into the psychology of scarcity and underscore the importance of understanding how contextual factors shape people's calorie estimates and the psychological mechanisms that drive them.     

重口味食物会使人变胖?——咸味对食物热量感知的影响

随着食品与健康越来越受社会的关注,影响消费者对食物热量估计的因素也成为了营销学者感兴趣的问题。本文基于感官营销领域的联结理论,首次探讨了与食物紧密相关的口味——咸味——对食物热量感知的影响,4组实验表明咸味降低了个体对食物健康程度的感知,从而提高了个体对食物热量的估计。实验1采用食物品尝任务发现了咸味提高食物热量估计的主效应。实验2选取普通大众样本,检验了主效应的稳健性和外部效度,同时发现感知健康程度的中介作用。实验3通过操纵对食盐健康与否的认知,进一步验证了本文假设的理论机制。实验4发现有害品/有益品的调节作用,对于有害品,咸淡口味对食物热量估计的影响作用消失。     

Metaphoric advertisement comprehension: The role of the cerebral hemispheres

Currently little is known about how implicit processes (i.e., cognitive processes that consumers are unaware of) are utilized as consumers read metaphoric advertisements. The field of cognitive neuroscience can help marketers better understand consumers' implicit processing by examining how each cerebral hemisphere uniquely contributes during metaphoric advertisement comprehension. A right hemisphere advantage has been demonstrated during metaphoric language processing; however, it is unclear how each hemisphere of the brain processes metaphors used in advertisements. This study combines the fields of marketing and cognitive neuroscience to investigate the hemispheric processing of metaphoric advertisements. Through the use of the divided visual field paradigm, participants read metaphor, literal, or neutral slogans and responded to related target words presented to either the left visual field‐right hemisphere or the right visual field‐left hemisphere. As predicted, there was a right hemisphere advantage, compared to the left hemisphere, for metaphoric slogans. Additionally, greater facilitation was evident in the right hemisphere for literal slogans compared to metaphoric slogans. Metaphoric messages were also remembered better than literal ones. These findings provide an in‐depth account of how consumers implicitly process messages, suggesting an important role of the right hemisphere during the comprehension of both metaphoric and literal messages. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Learning and transfer of calorie information

This study compared generating information about food to viewing and verbally producing that information for learning and transfer. Specifically, during training, a list of food items was shown, and some participants generated either real calories (Experiment 1) or fabricated prices (Experiment 2) associated with those foods with feedback provided (seeding), some viewed and read aloud values provided (viewing), and others read aloud the names of the items with no values provided (control). All participants were tested immediately and 1 week later on both old and new foods. In both experiments, the seeding and viewing conditions showed more learning than the control condition, and only the experimental conditions showed transfer of learning from old to new foods, with advantages found for seeding over viewing only in some cases. The results are discussed in terms of the seeding, testing, generation, and production effects, as well as their applications to health and policy.     

How does reading direction modulate perceptual asymmetry effects?

Left-side bias effects refer to a bias towards the left side of the stimulus/space in perceptual/visuospatial judgments, and are argued to reflect dominance of right hemisphere processing. It remains unclear whether reading direction can also account for the bias effect. Previous studies comparing readers of languages read from left to right with those read from right to left (e.g., French vs. Hebrew) have obtained inconsistent results. As a language that can be read from left to right or from right to left, Chinese provides a unique opportunity for a within-culture examination of reading direction effects. Chinese participants performed a perceptual judgment task (with both face and Chinese character stimuli; Experiment 1) and two visuospatial attention tasks (the greyscales and line bisection tasks; Experiment 2) once before and once after a reading task, in which they read Chinese passages either from left to right or from right to left for about 20 min. After reading from right to left, participants showed significantly reduced left-side bias in Chinese character perceptual judgments but not in the other three tasks. This effect suggests that the role of reading direction on different forms of left-side bias may differ, and its modulation may be stimulus-specific.     

Promoting healthier food choices in college students using individualized dietary feedback

A healthy diet is a key ingredient to good health and can help prevent a number of adverse health conditions. Although many people can describe a healthy diet, they often cannot accurately report the nutritional content of their own diets. In this study, daily dietary feedback consisting of recommended daily nutrient values accompanied by estimated calorie and fat data of daily food purchases was provided to four college undergraduates. The estimated calorie and percentage of calories from fat data were based on records of participant purchases at university dining establishments. The introduction of daily dietary feedback resulted in the students purchasing fewer calories and fewer calories from fat per day. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Incremental theories of weight and healthy eating behavior

We examined whether a belief in weight as malleable (an incremental theory) leads to healthier eating than a belief that weight is fixed (an entity theory). Participants with incremental theories of weight consumed fewer calories from high‐calorie foods in a lab‐based taste‐test than did those with more entity theories of weight. This pattern held correlationally, with naturally occurring theories of weight (Study 1), and when we experimentally manipulated participants’ theories of weight (Study 2). A third study provided evidence that differences in self‐efficacy regarding food mediate the relationship between theories of weight and eating behavior (Study 3). One way to encourage healthy eating might be to develop interventions that encourage more incremental views of weight.     

How to rapidly construct a spatial–numerical representation in preliterate children (at least temporarily)

Spatial processing of numbers has emerged as one of the basic properties of humans’ mathematical thinking. However, how and when number–space relations develop is a highly contested issue. One dominant view has been that a link between numbers and left/right spatial directions is constructed based on directional experience associated with reading and writing. However, some early forms of a number–space link have been observed in preschool children who cannot yet read and write. As literacy experience is evidently not necessary for number–space effects, we are searching for other potential sources of this association. Here we propose and test a hypothesis that the number–space link can be quickly constructed in preschool children's cognition on the basis of spatially oriented visuo‐motor activities. We trained 3‐ and 4‐year‐old children with a non‐numerical spatial movement task (left‐to‐right or right‐to‐left), where via touch screen children had to move a frog across a pond. After the training, children had to perform a numerosity comparison task. After left‐to‐right training, we observed a SNARC‐like effect (reactions to smaller numbers were faster on the left side, and reactions to larger numbers on the right side), and after right‐to‐left training a reverse effect. These results are the first to show a causal link between visuo‐motor activities and number–space associations in children before they learn to read and write. We argue that simple activities, such as manual games, dominant in a given society, might shape number–space associations in children in a way similar to lifelong reading training.     

The flexibility of association between temporal concepts and physical space in the Japanese language

Previous studies have indicated that temporal concepts such as the past and future are associated with horizontal (left–right) space. This association has been interpreted as reflecting left‐to‐right writing systems. The Japanese language, however, is written both horizontally and vertically and, when texts are presented vertically, the sequence of columns runs from right to left. This study examines whether the associations between time and space are changed by the direction of the character strings using a word categorization task. Consistent with previous studies, response times and error rates indicated left‐past and right‐future associations when participants read words presented horizontally. On the other hand, response times indicated the opposite (i.e., left‐future and right‐past associations) when participants read words presented vertically. These results suggest that temporal concepts are not associated with one's body or physical space in an inflexible manner, but rather the associations can flexibly change through experience.     

Hemispheric processing of anaphoric inferences: the activation of multiple antecedents

This research investigates the hemispheric processing of anaphors when readers activate multiple antecedents. Participants read texts promoting an anaphoric inference and performed a lexical decision task to inference-related target words that were consistent (Experiment 1) or inconsistent (Experiment 2) with the text. These targets were preceded by constrained or less constraining text and were presented to participants' right visual field-left hemisphere or to their left visual field-right hemisphere. In Experiment 1, both hemispheres showed facilitation for consistent antecedents and the right hemisphere showed an advantage over the left hemisphere in processing antecedents when preceded by less constrained text. In Experiment 2, the left hemisphere only showed negative facilitation for inconsistent antecedents. When readers comprehend text with multiple antecedents: both hemispheres process consistent information, the left hemisphere inhibits inconsistent information, and the right hemisphere processes less constrained information.     

Transfer of short-term motor learning across the lower limbs as a function of task conception and practice order

Interlimb transfer of motor learning, indicating an improvement in performance with one limb following training with the other, often occurs asymmetrically (i.e., from non-dominant to dominant limb or vice versa, but not both). In the present study, we examined whether interlimb transfer of the same motor task could occur asymmetrically and in opposite directions (i.e., from right to left leg vs. left to right leg) depending on individuals’ conception of the task. Two experimental conditions were tested: In a dynamic control condition, the process of learning was facilitated by providing the subjects with a type of information that forced them to focus on dynamic features of a given task (force impulse); and in a spatial control condition, it was done with another type of information that forced them to focus on visuomotor features of the same task (distance). Both conditions employed the same leg extension task. In addition, a fully-crossed transfer paradigm was used in which one group of subjects initially practiced with the right leg and were tested with the left leg for a transfer test, while the other group used the two legs in the opposite order. The results showed that the direction of interlimb transfer varied depending on the condition, such that the right and the left leg benefited from initial training with the opposite leg only in the spatial and the dynamic condition, respectively. Our finding suggests that manipulating the conception of a leg extension task has a substantial influence on the pattern of interlimb transfer in such a way that the direction of transfer can even be opposite depending on whether the task is conceived as a dynamic or spatial control task.     

Writing induces a right hemisphere linguistic advantage in dysphonetic dyslexic children: implications for attention and capacity models of laterality

An experiment demonstrated a complete hemispheric processing reversal in 10 male, dysphonetic dyslexic children that occurred during a dichotic listening test of their verbal working memory. Requiring a written response to dichotic digits produced a right hemisphere/left ear superiority in the dysphonetic dyslexics whereas normal subjects and other dyslexics maintained a left hemisphere/right ear advantage. This reversal was unaffected by changes in task difficulty. A second experiment assessed the influence on producing the reversal of concurrent manual interference with left hemisphere verbal processing (responding orally vs. manually) and selective right hemisphere priming (Forward Writing vs. Backward Writing). The dysphonetic children reverted to a strong left hemisphere superiority when recalling the dichotic digits orally. Backward writing produced no ear advantage in either direction. The findings suggest that dysphonetic dyslexia may be related to (1) left hemisphere processing demands that exceed capacity, (2) easily activated right hemisphere processing strategies and (3) failure to coordinate linguistic processing interhemispherically. The results supported a novel hybrid conceptualization of dyslexia consisting of a synthesis of selective activation, and dual processor-limited capacity, theories.     

Are U.S. consumers using MyPlate and restaurant menu labels and does their use equate with dietary and exercise behavior?

The U.S. government provided a website, entitled MyPlate, and required menu labels to state calories to help the population make healthy dietary and exercise choices. The purpose of this study is to assess the awareness and use of nutrition information provided by MyPlate and by restaurant menu labels with dietary and exercise behavior for U.S. adults considering race/ethnicity and gender. This study uses data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2014 for adults, aged 20 years and older, from 3 racial/ethnic groups N = 4924: 1,275 Hispanics, 1,177 non‐Hispanic Blacks (NHB); 2,472 non‐Hispanic Whites to assess awareness and who reported seeing nutrition information at fast‐food/pizza places and waitstaff restaurants and answered affirmatively to hearing about MyPlate (N = 749). Dietary behaviors for controlling or losing weight, reducing fat, and increasing exercise was significantly higher for those who tried MyPlate as compared with those who stated they did not try MyPlate. Over half the individuals who reported that they tried MyPlate stated that they would often use nutrition information for fast‐food/pizza places and waitstaff restaurants as compared with less than one‐third of individuals who declared that they have not tried MyPlate. Males, Hispanics, NHB, individuals with a lower education level, current smokers, and older adults had higher percent of not hearing about MyPlate. NHB, males, and older adults had a lower percent of using menu nutrition information. Increasing use of MyPlate and menu calorie labeling may serve to encourage vulnerable groups to make healthy dietary and exercise choices.     

An fMRI investigation of the neural correlates underlying the processing of novel metaphoric expressions

The neural networks associated with processing related pairs of words forming literal, novel, and conventional metaphorical expressions and unrelated pairs of words were studied in a group of 15 normal adults using fMRI. Subjects read the four types of linguistic expressions and decided which relation exists between the two words (metaphoric, literal, or unrelated). According to the Graded Salience Hypothesis (GSH, ), which predicts a selective RH involvement in the processing of novel, nonsalient meanings, it is primarily the degree of meaning salience of a linguistic expression rather than literality or nonliterality, which modulates the degree of left hemisphere (LH) and right hemisphere (RH) processing of metaphors. In the present study, novel metaphorical expressions represented the nonsalient interpretations, whereas conventional metaphors and literal expressions represented the salient interpretations. A direct comparison of the novel metaphors vs. the conventional metaphors revealed significantly stronger activity in right posterior superior temporal sulcus, right inferior frontal gyrus, and left middle frontal gyrus. These results support the GSH and suggest a special role for the RH in processing novel metaphors. Furthermore, the right PSTS may be selectively involved in verbal creativity.     

成功与失败限制性饮食者对食物加工的能量效应：注意偏向的眼动追踪

本研究通过眼动追踪考察两类限制性饮食者对食物注意偏向的成分。在高低能量食物分别和非食物配对时,成功者对高能量存在注意警觉（加速探测）-回避（早期和总体的回避）模式;失败者对高能量存在注意回避（早期定向回避）-维持（早期维持）模式,即在早期注意更少的定向于高能量,但一旦注意到就出现维持偏向。在高低能量配对时,成功者对高能量注意警觉（早期定向）-维持（早期维持）;失败者对高能量注意警觉（早期定向）-维持（早期、总体的维持) 。总体上,我们发现了不同亚类限制性饮食者对食物线索加工的能量效应,即失败者比成功者对高能量食物注意更多的眼动证据。     

The Development of Young Children’s Mental Timeline in Relation to Emergent Literacy Skills

ABSTRACT

The abstract concept of time is conceptualized as moving linearly across space, known as the mental timeline (MTL). The direction of our MTL is consistent with reading direction. English speakers, who read left to right, think of past on the left and future on the right; the reverse is true of Hebrew speakers, who read right to left. However, it is unknown whether familiarity with reading direction facilitates the development of the MTL or whether it develops prior to becoming familiar with a language’s direction. This study examined the relationship between the development of the MTL and emergent literacy skills in English-speaking preschoolers and kindergartners. Results reveal a preference for spatially displaying time as moving horizontally from left to right in preschoolers, which is strengthened in kindergartners and predicted by emergent literacy skills. Results indicate that emergent literacy skills are related to the early development of the MTL, providing insight into the origins of the mental timeline.     

Reading direction and the central perceptual span: Evidence from Arabic and English

In English and other alphabetic languages read from left to right, useful information acquired during each fixational pause is generally reported to extend much further to the right of each fixation than to the left. However, the asymmetry of the perceptual span for alphabetic languages read in the opposite direction (i.e., from right to left) has received very little attention in empirical research. Accordingly, we investigated the perceptual span for Arabic, which is one of the world’s most widely read languages and is read from right to left, using a gaze-contingent window paradigm in which a region of text was displayed normally around each point of fixation, while text outside this region was obscured. Skilled Arabic readers who were bilingual in Arabic and English read Arabic and English sentences while a window of normal text extended symmetrically 0.5^o to the left and right of fixation or asymmetrically, by increasing this window to 1.5^o or 2.5^o to either the left or the right. When English was read, performance across window conditions was superior when windows extended rightward. However, when Arabic was read, performance was superior when windows extended leftward and was essentially the reverse of that observed for English. These findings show for the first time that a leftward asymmetry in the central perceptual span occurs when Arabic is read and, for the first time in over 30 years, provide a new indication that the perceptual span for alphabetic languages is modified by the overall direction of reading.     

Right‐wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation differentially predict biased evaluations of media reports

This study tested the dual‐process motivational (DPM) model, which posits that right‐wing authoritarianism (RWA) and social dominance orientation (SDO) differentially predict attitudes toward socially threatening or subordinate groups, respectively. Participants read articles on same‐sex relationships and affirmative action and evaluated the article content and the biases of the article authors. The article conclusions (i.e., pro‐ or anti‐same‐sex relationships and affirmative action) were varied between subjects. As expected, only RWA predicted evaluations of the same‐sex relationships articles and authors, whereas only SDO predicted evaluations of the affirmative action articles and authors. These results extend applications of the dual‐process model by demonstrating that RWA and SDO differentially predict evaluations of political information that pertains to socially threatening or subordinate groups, respectively.     

Creative production by angry people peaks early on, decreases over time, and is relatively unstructured

Anecdotes and introspective reports from eminent scientists and artists aside, a systematic test of the putative creativity-enhancing effect of anger is missing. This article fills this void with three experiments examining creativity as a function of anger (vs. sad or a mood-neutral control state). Combining insights from the literatures on creativity and on mood and information processing the authors predicted that anger (vs. sadness and a mood-neutral control state) triggers a less systematic and structured approach to the creativity task, and leads to initially higher levels of creativity (as manifested in original ideation and creative insights). Following work on resource depletion, the authors further predicted that anger more than sadness depletes resources and that, therefore, creative performance should decline over time more for angry than for sad people. Results supported predictions. Implications for creativity, information processing, and resource depletion are discussed.     

Multiple spatial mappings in numerical cognition

A recent cross-cultural comparison (Shaki, Fischer, & Petrusic, 2009) suggested that spatially consistent processing habits for words and numbers are a necessary condition for the spatial representation of numbers (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes; SNARC effect). Here we reexamine the SNARC in Israelis who read text from right to left but numbers from left to right. We show that, despite these spatially inconsistent processing habits, a SNARC effect still emerges when the response dimension is spatially orthogonal to the conflicting processing dimension. These results clarify the cognitive conditions for spatial-numerical mappings.