女性主义关怀伦理学视角下的代孕探析

近年来代孕现象频频发生,由此代孕引发的纠纷越来越多.女性主义关怀伦理学是近年来刚刚兴起的新思潮,从女性主义关怀伦理学这一独特的视角对代孕问题进行探析,强调同情、关怀的价值,注重从情境、情感和经验分析,并从包容角度去看待代孕现象.从女性主义关怀伦理学的角度对代孕现象引发的伦理问题进行探析,并在此基础上提出合理的代孕伦理规约,旨在合理利用代孕手段,使其能真正为不孕不育者带来生育的希望,避免出现伦理道德和社会的混乱.     

关于“代孕爸爸”事件的生命伦理与法律问题思考

全球首位“代孕爸爸”托马斯·比提的高调出现,带来了一场激烈的关于生命伦理与法律的大讨论。变性人的婚姻、生育及代孕问题让我们不得不对变性手术、人工辅助生殖技术以及代孕技术这些新兴生命技术进行再思考。我们不仅要肯定新兴生命技术的合理性,也要防止其所产生的潜在负面影响。合理利用新兴生命技术,客观地分析该事件并制定相应的法规是避免出现伦理道德和社会混乱的有效途径。     

代孕合法化的争议与回应

近年来，随着人类辅助生殖技术的发展，主张代孕合法化或有限合法化的趋势愈发明显。本文基于公序良俗的本土性和时代性特征，采纳以尊严为中心、权利义务相统一的话语体系，秉持明定主义的理论立场，结合对权利泛化现象的辩证分析，论证代孕在观念日新的当下并不具备合法化的法律和现实基础，禁止代孕在很长一段时间内仍是我国应当坚持的立法选择。我国现行禁止代孕的立法设计还存在不足，以致代孕行为屡禁不止，因此应尽快出台《人类辅助生殖法》,协调各相关监管机构开展联合执法，加强行政处罚力度等，从不同维度对代孕行为进行打击和监管，共同维护社会的稳定和谐。     

非商业性妊娠型代孕的伦理正当性分析

非商业性妊娠型代孕的伦理正当性主要表现在对不孕方的最大关爱和尊重,对代孕母亲和精卵捐献者高尚品行的尊重、赞赏,其合法实施也能弥补现行法律缺位导致的实体正义缺失。由于对代孕不良伦理后果和权益纠纷的过度焦虑和夸大,合理的代孕行为被压制和排斥在伦理正当性和合法化之外,既使不孕者正常权益无法得到尊重和实现,又使代孕母亲和所生子女的伦理地位和利益在"地下"代孕情境中难以得到法律保障。因此,在我国以家庭伦理为本位和重视生儿育女的伦理语境下,通过妊娠型代孕合法化的政策实践就能很好地解决代孕面临的各种伦理、社会问题。     

完全代孕的伦理正当性研究

完全代孕作为代替他人进行分娩的互助行为,具有伦理上的正当性与合理性,给予不孕方人文关怀与平等尊重。作为一种医疗行为建立在双方知情同意基础上进行的合理代孕,其行为主体不论是委托夫妻还是代孕女性都具有其伦理正当性并应给予相关法律的保障;尽管反对代孕者多只是强调代孕所带来的伦理后果与利益纠纷,但更应有效规制合理的代孕行为,规避其伦理风险与利益纠葛,保障"完全代孕"的合法化制度环境,在我国以家庭伦理为本位的语境之下重视不孕者生儿育女的需求,从而有效规约完全代孕行为所带来的伦理及其社会问题。     

法理视角话代孕——兼析《人类辅助生殖技术管理办法》第三条第二款

可行性上,代孕的社会需求旺盛、社会供给充沛、技术成熟可行;认同度上,除国家卫生健康委员会及其禁令管辖系统范围内,民、商、学和实务等社会各界更多取向认可和开放(有偿)代孕。试图对代孕本身及其相关主体、现制和社会意识进行法理学上不设预定的求证与解析,尽可能探求出一有据、可信且具说服力之答案,最终得证——有偿代孕不具正当性。该论证过程的另一副产品为《人类辅助生殖技术管理办法》第三条第二款在法理上合法、有效,虽有瑕疵但可补正。     

从合作生殖的视角对代孕生殖含义的伦理辨析

代孕生殖技术已有三十多年的历史,一直备受争议。代孕生殖的技术概念包括完全代孕和部分代孕两类。基于遗传学联系、情感联系和伤害风险的考量,只有不孕夫妻提供精卵、代孕女性孕育分娩的完全代孕在实践中可行。同时,基于合作生殖的视角,虽然代孕生殖可能引发人们对传统婚姻伦理和亲情伦理的种种论争,但是通过完全代孕技术帮助不孕夫妻的代孕女性不是破坏婚姻关系的所谓"第三者",代孕女性"生而不养"的事实亦不应被斥责为不道德。     

代孕技术的伦理与法律思考

简要介绍了代孕的概念,指出了在我国有条件开放代孕的合理性。从家庭关系、子宫工具化和婴儿商业化三个方面给出了代孕合理性的伦理依据。从合同法、身体权、生育权三个方面给出了法律的解读。从伦理与法律两方面对我国有条件的开放代孕加以论述,并提出相应对策及理论支持。     

从规范代孕角度浅析代孕当事人的主体资格

2015年《人口与计划生育法》修订中"禁止代孕"入法失败,"规范代孕"被提出,代孕制度立法困难凸显。实践中,"禁止代孕"未取得预期效果,海外代孕和非法代孕增多。无锡"冷冻胚胎案"后,胚胎如何处理促使代孕成为讨论焦点。在社会价值基础发生转变的前提下,基于法理、伦理、法经济学的立法考量分析规范代孕,并从年龄、婚姻、健康等方面对受术夫妻和代孕母亲的主体资格进行规制。在适用范围上允许不孕不育患者申请代孕,达到代孕与社会实际需求的融合,形成良性有序的代孕医疗制度。     

代孕对不孕夫妻家庭关系影响的伦理探究

代孕引发争议的原因之一是,代孕可能破坏夫妻关系,使母子关系复杂化。辨析了代孕对不孕夫妻家庭关系产生的伦理问题,首先,代孕女性不同于介入婚姻关系的"第三者";其次,以代孕破坏夫妻关系的潜在、不确定风险为由反对夫精妻卵妊娠型代孕令人难以信服;再次,辨析代孕产生的两个母亲身份看似复杂但分工明确,有利于保障代孕子女的生命与成长利益;最后,提出代孕对家庭关系伤害的最小化在一定程度上依赖于中国社会的家庭文化宽容度。     

WOMB TRANSPLANTATION AND THE INTERPLAY OF ISLAM AND THE WEST

In Saudi Arabia in 2000 the world's first human uterus transplant was attempted with some success. In 2011 the second successful human uterus transplant took place in Turkey. Doctors in the United Kingdom have recently announced that uterus transplants will be carried out in the UK if doctors can raise enough funds to complete their research. As scientists continue to make progress in this domain this is anticipated to be the next breakthrough in the arena of assisted reproductive technologies. The procedure is designed to restore fertility in women unable to gestate due to an abnormal, damaged, or absent uterus. At present, the only other option for such women to achieve genetic motherhood is via surrogacy, which in Islam is widely regarded as haram or forbidden. This article examines the benefits of this technology so as to facilitate discourse between Islam and the West. It argues for Islamic scholars to consider these advances so as to ensure Muslims living as minorities in Western countries, such as the United Kingdom, are able to utilize such technology (if indeed regarded as permissible) should the government move to enact legislation to permit this procedure.     

英国“代孕”合法化二十年历史回顾

在英国,代孕人工生殖是合法的医疗手段。《布雷热报告》等调查报告对英国代孕立法产生了深远影响。为实现生殖自由、子女利益和社会秩序的平衡,英国拟制定一部专门的《代孕法》。     

2004–2009 : révision de la loi de bioéthique en France,quels enjeux,quels débats ? Assistance médicale à la procréation,gestation pour autrui,transplantation

The bioethics law, adopted for the first time in 1994 and revised in 2004, is under revision again. This process has raised numerous debates at various institutional, professional and social levels. The government also organised a unique type of citizens’ consultation: the General Estates in Bioethics (GEB). Several panels of citizens had the opportunity to express their informed opinion on a selected set of topics concerning the law revision, after having received a special training by an expert committee. We have analysed the contributions of six public bodies – the Parliament Office for Scientific and Technological Choices Evaluation (OPECST), the National Consultative Ethics Committee, (CCNE), the State Council, (CE), the Biomedical Agency, (ABM), the Senate and the Parliamentary Information Mission for this bioethics law revision – as well as the final GEB's report. In this article, we present and compare their proposals on three themes: Medically assisted procreation (MAP), surrogacy and transplantation. Whereas a consensus emerged from the debates on certain issues – apart from the Senate, all institutions seem to be in favour of maintaining the current banning of surrogacy – other points are still under debate – how to open the access to MAP technologies, under what conditions should we grant access to selected data concerning gamete donors, how is death defined in the difficult conditions of a potential non heart beating donor, should the presumed consent regime for post mortem donation be revised, and if so how, – The parliament should discuss the law during 2010's first semester, and will have the difficult responsibility to take measures on issues raising medical, scientific, social, philosophical and moral questions.     

从“行政主导”到“有限政府”——中国政府改革的方向与路径

政治理论和政治实践表明,"有限政府"作为"宪政"的核心概念,是善治良政的重要条件和原则。然而,行政主导下的全能政治一直被认为是中国政府政治的主要特点。本文在梳理"有限政府"理论的基础上,简要分析了中国宪政发展的历程,总结了中国法治建设的成就,指出了目前距离宪政目标的差距,从"有限政府"与"有效政府"的关系出发,论证了"有限政府"作为中国政府改革目标的合理性,并从限制政府自由裁量权、确立针对政府政治的有效监督、建立公共财政制度三个方面,说明了这一改革的基本路径。     

台湾地区“代孕”立法最新进展及其启示

2007年3月21日,台湾地区在广泛调研、民主决策的基础上,终于颁布实施了《人工生殖法》,使争论已久的代孕人工生殖问题与《人工生殖法》正式脱钩,另行规制;此前,《代孕人工生殖法》草案也已经出笼,拟有条件开放代孕人工生殖。相关草案对代孕者、受术夫妻、代孕中介、代孕契约、亲子关系等问题都进行了具体规定。台湾地区的立法经验对祖国大陆完善包括代孕在内的人工生殖法具有一定的借鉴意义。     

A case for permitting altruistic surrogacy

Canada's Royal Commission on New Reproductive Technologies rejects all forms of surrogacy arrangement under the rubric of objecting to commercial surrogacy. Noncommercial surrogacy arrangements, however, can be defended against the commission's objections. They can be viewed as cases of giving a benefit or service to another in a way that expresses benevolence, and establishes a relationship between surrogates and prospective 'social' parents that allows mutual understanding and reciprocal personal interaction between them.     

Surrogacy and the Construction of the Maternal-Foetal Relationship: The Feminist Dilemma Examined

The feminist movement remains fundamentally divided over the issue of surrogacy. Within the confines of this article it is argued that the inadequacy of positions on both sides of the debate rests upon their common tendency to deal with the ethical consequences of surrogacy for isolated agents, without sufficient concern for the broader social implications for all pregnant women in society. In order to clarify the issues involved, feminist theorists must consider the implications of surrogacy in a broader social spectrum. Such an analysis will illustrate that the two-person dichotomous model of the maternal-foetal relationship proposed by the surrogacy arrangement has hugely prejudicial effects on the treatment received by non-contract mothers when they interact with agents of certain social institutions whose prior contact with surrogate mothers has made them more susceptible to conceiving the maternal-foetal relationship as fundamentally disconnected. In a climate of increased medical surveillance and intervention in the non-clinical context of pregnancy, the dangers of adopting this dichotomous model are palpable. Given the oppressive physical and psychological effect that this would have upon the liberty of the majority of pregnant women in society, this article argues that the feminist movement must abandon any promotion of the abstracted model of the mother-foetus relationship that is implicit in its arguments in favour of surrogacy.     

Two questions about surrogacy and exploitation

In this article I will consider two related questions about surrogacy and exploitation: (1) Is surrogacy exploitative? (2) If surrogacy is exploitative, what is the moral force of this exploitation? Briefly stated, I shall argue that whether surrogacy is exploitative depends on whether exploitation must be harmful to the exploited party or whether (as I think) there can be mutually advantageous exploitation. It also depends on some facts about surrogacy about which we have little reliable evidence and on our philosophical view on what counts as a harm to the surrogate. Our answer to the second question will turn in part on the account of exploitation we invoke in answering the first question and in part on the way in which we resolve some other questions about the justification of state interference. I shall suggest, however, that if surrogacy is a form of voluntary and mutually advantageous exploitation, then there is a strong presumption that surrogacy contracts should be permitted and even enforceable, although that presumption may be overridden on other grounds.     

Families created through surrogacy arrangements: parent-child relationships in the 1st year of life

Findings are presented of a study of families created through surrogacy arrangements. Forty-two surrogacy families were compared with 51 egg-donation families and 80 natural-conception families on standardized interview and questionnaire measures of the psychological well-being of the parents, the quality of parent-child relationships, and infant temperament. The differences that were identified between the surrogacy families and the other family types indicated greater psychological well-being and adaptation to parenthood by mothers and fathers of children born through surrogacy arrangements than by the natural-conception parents.     

Theological Reconstruction in China: Ecumenical Accompaniment in the Self‐Theologizing Effort in Theological Education

In 2007 Protestants in China celebrated the 200th anniversary of their journey of faith. The continuing concern of Chinese Christian theological educators is to rejuvenate Christianity in China by critically adapting to the contemporary socialist order and the best religio‐cultural tradition of Chinese society. Chinese Christians have been challenged by the socialist order of society particularly because of the political and social changes that have taken place in China since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and the changes brought about within Chinese society. With the end of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) and the change of political atmosphere in 1978 there has been once again an opening for public Christian activities within the confines of certain state regulations. This change has provided scope for pursuing the reconstruction in China of Christianity initiated in the 1950s under the Three Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM). Besides the revival of TSPM, the Chinese leaders have set up another instrument, the China Christian Council (CCC) especially to cater to the surging pastoral and congregational needs. This article briefly surveys the development of the vision of reconstructing Christianity through “theological reconstruction” and the need for ecumenical accompaniment.