Your words are my words: Effects of acting together on encoding

Social influences on action and memory are well established. However, it is unknown how acting together affects the incidental encoding of information. The present study asked whether coactors encode information that is relevant to a partner's task, but irrelevant to their own task. In Experiment 1, participants performed a categorization task alone and together, followed by a surprise free recall test where they were asked to recall items from the categorization task. Recall was better not only for items that participants had responded to themselves, but also for items that their coactor had responded to, than for items that had not required a response. The same results were found in Experiment 2, even though financial incentives motivated participants to only encode words they had responded to themselves. Together, the findings suggest that performing tasks together can modulate how information relevant to coactors is processed. Shared task representations may act as a vehicle for establishing shared memories.     

Incidental and intentional visual memory: What memories are and are not affected by encoding tasks?

Prior research into the impact of encoding tasks on visual memory (Castelhano & Henderson, 2005) indicated that incidental and intentional encoding tasks led to similar memory performance. The current study investigated whether different encoding tasks impacted visual memories equally for all types of objects in a conjunction search (e.g., targets, colour distractors, object category distractors, or distractors unrelated to the target). In sequences of pictures, participants searched for prespecified targets (e.g., green apple; Experiment 1), memorized all objects (Experiment 2), searched for specified targets while memorizing all objects (Experiment 3), searched for postidentified targets (Experiment 4), or memorized all objects with one object prespecified (Experiment 5). Encoding task significantly improved visual memory for targets and led to worse memory for unrelated distractors, but did not influence visual memory of distractors that were related to the target's colour or object category. The differential influence of encoding task indicates that the relative importance of the object both positively and negatively influences the memory retained.     

The influence of task characteristics on younger and older adult motor overflow

This study investigated the influence of attentional and motor demands on motor overflow in 17 healthy young (18–35 years) and 17 older adults (60–80 years). Participants performed a finger pressing task by exerting either 33% or 66% of their maximal force output using their dominant or nondominant hand. Overflow was concurrently recorded in the passive hand. Attention was manipulated via a tactile stimulus presented to one or both hands for certain trials. Results showed that older adults exhibited greater overflow than young adults and that the effect of target force was exacerbated in older adults. Further, only older adult overflow was increased when tactile stimulation was directed to one or both hands. Increased overflow in older adults may result from bilateral cortical activation that is influenced by increased task demands. To perform comparatively to younger adults, older adults may compensate for age-related brain changes by recruiting an increased cortical network.     

Implicit task sequence learning with auditory stimuli

We investigated implicit task sequence learning with auditory stimuli. In previous studies only visual stimuli have been used and thus learning may have been due to visuoperceptual learning. Further, we explored the generality of the correlated streams account which holds that correlated streams of information are necessary for implicit sequence learning to occur. We used three classification tasks with auditory stimuli. The presence or absence of a task sequence was orthogonally manipulated with that of a response sequence. Sequence-specific learning was found, but only in the condition with both a task and a response sequence. No learning was found in the conditions with a single task sequence and with a single response sequence. These results show that task–response sequence learning occurs with auditory stimuli and that visuoperceptual learning is not necessary. Moreover, they underscore the importance of correlated streams of information for implicit sequence learning.     

记忆的知觉干扰效应研究概述

知觉干扰效应是指在识记阶段快速呈现一个单词,紧接着给予一个倒行掩蔽的刺激,在随后的记忆测验中被试表现出对单词的记忆增强的一种现象。知觉干扰效应的影响因素分为测验方式、实验设计方式、实验材料的属性和其他影响因素四个方面。理论解释主要有六种：精细加工假说、时空背景假说、任务要求假说、补偿加工假说、选择性复述假说以及项目特异关联假说。最后,文章从研究领域和实验材料的拓展以及主观因素的影响展望了该研究领域     

内隐与外显记忆编码阶段脑机制的重叠与分离

记忆包括编码和提取两个重要阶段, 以往研究多关注内隐和外显记忆在提取阶段的脑机制分离, 那二者在编码阶段的脑机制是否不同？为探讨这个问题, 该实验采用两阶段的迫选再认方式, 把学习项目区分成三类：随后被选择且告知为见过的项目(记住), 随后被选择但告知为猜测的项目 (启动)以及随后未被选择的项目(忘记)。结果表明, 从200 ms开始的颞区负走向Dm效应为内隐记忆(启动vs忘记)所特有, 反映了对刺激的知觉加工过程, 400~500 ms前额区正走向的Dm效应为外显记忆(记住vs忘记)所特有, 反映了对刺激的精细加工过程, 而200~300 ms中央区及600 ms开始的顶区负走向的Dm效应为两种记忆类型所共有, 它们分别反映了对刺激的注意状态以及把编码后的刺激信息登记进相应记忆系统的过程。因此, 内隐记忆与外显记忆在编码阶段的脑机制既存在着分离, 也存在着重叠的现象。     

Differential short-term memorisation for vocal and instrumental rhythms

This study explores differential processing of vocal and instrumental rhythms in short-term memory with three decision (same/different judgments) and one reproduction experiment. In the first experiment, memory performance declined for delayed versus immediate recall, with accuracy for the two rhythms being affected differently: Musicians performed better than non-musicians on clapstick but not on vocal rhythms, and musicians were better on vocal rhythms in the same than in the different condition. Results for the second experiment showed that concurrent sub-vocal articulation and finger-tapping differentially affected the two rhythms and same/different decisions, but produced no evidence for articulatory loop involvement in delayed decision tasks. In a third experiment, which tested rhythm reproduction, concurrent sub-vocal articulation decreased memory performance, with a stronger deleterious effect on the reproduction of vocal than of clapstick rhythms. This suggests that the articulatory loop may only be involved in delayed reproduction not in decision tasks. The fourth experiment tested whether differences between filled and empty rhythms (continuous vs. discontinuous sounds) can explain the different memorisation of vocal and clapstick rhythms. Though significant differences were found for empty and filled instrumental rhythms, the differences between vocal and clapstick can only be explained by considering additional voice specific features.     

Processing of representations in declarative and procedural working memory

The article investigates the relation between declarative and procedural working memory (WM; Oberauer, 2009). Two experiments test the assumption that representations in the two subsystems are selected for processing in analogous ways. Participants carried out a series of decisions on memorized lists of digits. For each decision, they had to select declarative and procedural representations. Regarding declarative representations, participants selected a memory set and a digit within this set as the input to each decision. With respect to the procedural representations, they selected a task set to be applied to the selected digit and a response within that task set. We independently manipulated the number of lists and the number of tasks to be switched among (one, two, or three; Experiment 1) and preparation time for a list switch (Experiment 2). For three effects commonly observed in task-switch studies, analogues in declarative WM were found: list-switch costs, mixing costs, and residual switch costs. List- and task-switch costs were underadditive, suggesting that declarative and procedural representations are selected separately and in parallel. The findings support the hypothesis of two analogous WM subsystems.     

Control processes in voluntary and explicitly cued task switching

Explicitly cued task switching slows performance relative to performing the same task on consecutive trials. This effect appears to be due partly to more efficient encoding of the task cue when the same cue is used on consecutive trials and partly to an additional task-switching process. These components were examined by comparing explicitly cued and voluntary task switching groups, with external cues presented to both groups. Cue-switch effects varied in predictable ways to dissociate explicitly cued and voluntary task switching, whereas task-switch effects had similar characteristics for both instructional groups. The data were well fitted by a mathematical model of task switching that included a cue-encoding mechanism (whereby cue repetition improves performance) and an additional process that was invoked on task-switch trials. Analyses of response-time distributions suggest that this additional process involves task-set reconfiguration that may or may not be engaged before the target stimulus is presented.     

大学生偶发和外显编码中的自我参照效应

在自我参照范式中加入偶发编码加工方式,并采用R/K判断范式考察中国大学生在偶发编码和外显编码方式中的记忆成绩.结果发现:在R指标上,偶发编码方式和外显编码方式中均出现了自我参照效应和母亲参照效应;参照自我加工的记忆成绩显著高于参照母亲加工的记忆成绩;外显编码方式中的记忆成绩显著高于偶发编码方式的记忆成绩.结果提示,当需提高对信息的记忆成绩时,只要呈现自我线索就足够了,并不需要对其进行外显编码加工.     

内隐与外显记忆的编码与提取非对称性关系

实验采用“学习-测验”范式, 考察在编码或提取中分别附加的干扰任务对内隐测验或外显测验中获得的ERP新旧效应产生的影响。结果表明, 在内隐测验中, 编码干扰对随后测验中的ERP新旧效应没有产生影响, 而提取干扰却改变了300~500ms新旧效应的脑区位置, 破坏了500~700ms新旧效应; 与之相反, 在外显测验中, 编码干扰破坏了500~700ms新旧效应, 而提取干扰对这一效应没有产生影响, 即编码与提取干扰对内隐或外显测验中的ERP新旧效应都产生了非对称性的影响, 但又存在着差异, 从而为两种记忆在编码与提取加工的关系上存在的分离现象提供了神经生理方面的证据。     

Is there a memory profit after repeated learning of subject‐performed actions? Comparing direct and long‐term memory performance level as a function of age

Schatz, T.R., Spranger, T. & Knopf, M. (2010). Is there a memory profit after repeated learning of subject‐performed actions? Comparing direct and long‐term memory performance level as a function of age. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 51, 465–472. The present two studies investigated the possibility for improvement and maintenance of episodic memory in young and older adults. In a first study, the performance‐enhancing effect of two separate as well as combined learning devices, enactive encoding and repeated learning, was tested. With a time lag of one week, four different series of 30 action phrases were encoded either verbally or by enacting them symbolically. Memory was assessed in four immediate free recall tests. In a second study, the maintenance of the memory profit was tested in an unexpected fifth session half a year later. As expected, there was a steady improvement of memory performance as a function of repeated learning in study one. This holds true regardless of age. In addition, enactive encoding led to a better memory performance than verbal encoding in both age groups. Moreover, younger adults outperformed the elderly regardless of type of encoding. The combination of the two learning devices was not efficient enough to eliminate aging effects in episodic memory. However, memory flexibility is demonstrated also in the elderly. In the long‐term follow‐up, maintenance of learning and memory could be found in all participant groups.     

Effects of constrained choice on memory: The extension of the multiple-cue hypothesis to the self-choice effect

The self-choice effect is the phenomenon whereby self-chosen items are remembered better than experimenter-assigned items. This study examined whether the effect occurs when the choice is constrained by cuing, and whether the effect also occurs for unchosen items. In the experiment, 33 participants chose (choice condition) or were assigned (force condition) a target from three alternatives that were followed by a cue sentence as a criterion for the choice. Cue sentences corresponded to any of the three alternatives (free cuing) or to only one (constrained cuing). Participants then engaged in free recall of targets and subsequent recognition of all alternatives (chosen and unchosen items). Memory performance was enhanced by choice regardless of the constraints, but was also enhanced for unchosen items. These results indicate that "free choice" is not always critical for the self-choice effect, and that multiple cuing involving unchosen items is a plausible account for the retention advantage of choice procedures.     

Memory for Frequency of Bizarre and Common Stimuli: Limitations of the Automaticity Hypothesis

In 2 experiments, the influence of intention to process frequency on accuracy of memory for frequency of bizarre and common sentences was investigated. The results from multiple regression analyses indicated that intentional processing increased the accuracy of frequency judgments when memory for frequency was tested after a 2-min (Experiment 1) and after a 48-hr (Experiment 2) retention interval. Furthermore, the results of Experiment 2 indicated that unintentional processors tended to overestimate frequencies of bizarre relative to common items after a delay. The implications of the results are discussed with regard to L. Hasher and R. T. Zacks's (1984) automaticity hypothesis, human performance, and the accuracy of judgments of frequency of occurrence of unusual events.     

An Examination of the Value of the Generation Effect for Learning New Material

The generation effect involves an improvement in memory when learners must complete or modify materials. Several researchers have suggested that this effect involves enhanced access to learners' existing memory representations; therefore, the effect should be less effective with meaningless, low meaningful, or unfamiliar material. In the present study, the authors conducted 4 experiments in which legal nonwords were used, and they found no generation effect. In another 2 experiments in which familiar clichés were contrasted with new sentences and with unfamiliar sentences from textbooks, the results showed a greatly reduced generation effect for the new, unfamiliar material. Those findings suggest that memory strategies that depend on the generation effect will have limited effectiveness when they are applied to new or unfamiliar material.