Social support versus companionship: effects on life stress, loneliness, and evaluations by others

In recent years, much interest has focused on delineating and contrasting specific functions of social relationships that contribute to psychological well-being. Five studies contrasted the roles of companionship and social support in buffering the effects of life stress, in influencing feelings of loneliness and social satisfaction, and in affecting others' judgments. Study 1 analyzed data from a community survey and found that companionship had a main effect on psychological well-being and a buffering effect on minor life stress, whereas social support had only a buffering effect on major life stress. Studies 2, 3, and 4 analyzed data from two college student samples and a different community survey to evaluate how companionship and social support contributed to relationship satisfaction and feelings of loneliness. The results of these studies indicated that companionship was the strongest predictor of these dimensions of social satisfaction. Study 5 used an experimental design to test the hypothesis that a deficit of companionship elicits more negative reactions from others than does a deficit of social support. This hypothesis received partial support. Considered together, the results of these studies suggest that companionship plays a more important and more varied role in sustaining emotional well-being than previous studies have acknowledged.     

Social Interactions and Feelings of Inferiority

A daily event-recording method, referred to as the Daily Interaction Record in Organizations (DIRO) was employed for assessing the influence of three types of social interaction on negative affect at work. For this purpose, 38 correctional officers (COs) completed forms, for a l-week period, that described their social interactions and stressful events at work. Moreover, the forms measured the negative feelings of COs both at the beginning and at the end of the workday. The results showed that each type of social interaction had a different effect on negative affect at the end of the day. Instrumental support showed an adverse effect on negative affect because this type of support appeared to induce feelings of inferiority, which in turn led to negative affect. Rewarding companionship appeared to have a positive effect, whereas intimate support showed no effect at all on negative affect. It is concluded that a micro-analytic approach offers interesting possibilities for fine-grained analyses of daily occurring social interactions and psychological mechanisms involved in social support as related to negative affect.     

The influence of emotional labour and emotional work on the occupational health and wellbeing of South Australian hospital nurses

Nursing is an emotionally complex occupation, requiring performance of both emotional labour (for the benefit of the organisation and professional role) and emotional work (for the benefit of the nurse-patient relationship). According to the Conservation of Resources Theory, such processes can have a significant effect on psychological wellbeing and occupational stress, although little is known about the factors that moderate their effects. This exploratory study investigated the relationship between emotional labour and emotional work on psychological wellbeing and occupational stress in 239 nurses sampled from a South Australian hospital. The multi-component questionnaire study focused on the emotional labour elements of emotion expression and suppression, as well as surface acting and deep acting, and examined the companionship, help, and regulation elements of emotional work. In a multivariate model, emotional work was found to be less strongly predictive of negative psychological outcomes than was emotional labour, but was more strongly predictive of positive outcomes. Social support may moderate or be an antecedent to the performance of emotional labour and emotional work. The findings support the Conservation of Resources Theory with emotional work, rather than emotional labour, enabling the uptake of resources and leading to positive occupational health and wellbeing.     

A preliminary study into stress in palliative care: optimism, self-efficacy and social support

Caring for the terminally ill is a demanding, but rewarding area of health care. Stressors unique to this working environment--dealing with patient death rather than cure, and supporting entire family units, for example--put caregivers at risk from stress related illness. This study investigated the buffering effects of optimism, self-efficacy and social support against two measures of stress within the palliative setting. Comparisons were made between volunteer (n = 18) and professional (n = 18) caregivers across three caregiving settings. Data were collected retrospectively about personal control variables; use of and satisfaction with, social support; and, perceived general and occupational specific stress levels. Differences in reported stress levels were found both between settings (NHS, hospice and community-based) and between caregiver type (salary status and occupational category). Optimism was more strongly and consistently associated with low levels of perceived stress than was self-efficacy. Satisfaction with social support was highest among paid workers, and in terms of buffering stress in the whole sample, appeared mediated by optimism. Worksite interventions targeting caregiver self-efficacy and optimism are recommended as a potential source of stress management within this population.     

Occupational stress,social support,and burnout among correctional officers

Three alternative models of the role of workplace social support in ameliorating the effect of occupational stress on burnout symptoms were tested. Correctional officers (N = 166) completed a variety of questionnaire measures of job stress, the Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors, and the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Analyses showed no support for either the direct or buffering models of social support. Rather, the data were consistent with the indirect model of social support in the workplace. Among the job stress indices, role ambiguity, work load, and direct contact with inmates were found to be independent predictors of burnout symptomatology. The findings suggest a preventive rather than remedial effect of workplace social support in reducing occupational stress and burnout.     

青少年的社会支持系统与自尊的关系

采用典型相关分析方法对502名青少年的社会支持系统与自尊的关系进行研究,结果表明,在影响自尊的因素中,有29．8％是可以由青少年所感知的社会支持系统所解释的。母亲、父亲、朋友和教师的肯定与支持、冲突与惩罚、陪伴与亲密及满意度等功能分别可以解释青少年的家庭自尊、整体自尊、学业自尊、人际自尊和外貌自尊的8．5％、8．596、5．8％和7％。而社会支持功能与青少年的利他自尊和运动能力的自尊没有显著相关。     

Trait anxiety, work demand, social support and psychological distress in correctional officers

Abstract This study examined the role of social support in the relationship between work demand and psychological distress (GHQ 12) in correctional officers (N=419), a high stress occupational group. Work demands were positively associated with strain. There was no evidence that social support buffered the negative impact of work demands. Rather, consistent with most previous research findings, support showed direct benefits and these were discussed in the context of worker participation and control. The hypothesis that officers high in negative affectivity, as measured by trait anxiety would show greater reactivity to work demands was not supported. However, trait anxiety appeared to inflate the relationship between work stressors (work demand and work support) and psychological distress supporting recent suggestions that the role of trait anxiety in occupational stress should not be disregarded. Trait anxiety combined additively with work demand to predict individual differences in psychological distress, however social support moderated the impact of trait anxiety on strain.     

On anxiety-specific actions of tranquilizers

Abstract

This study examined the role of social support in the relationship between work demand and psychological distress (GHQ 12) in correctional officers (N=419), a high stress occupational group. Work demands were positively associated with strain. There was no evidence that social support buffered the negative impact of work demands. Rather, consistent with most previous research findings, support showed direct benefits and these were discussed in the context of worker participation and control. The hypothesis that officers high in negative affectivity, as measured by trait anxiety would show greater reactivity to work demands was not supported. However, trait anxiety appeared to inflate the relationship between work stressors (work demand and work support) and psychological distress supporting recent suggestions that the role of trait anxiety in occupational stress should not be disregarded. Trait anxiety combined additively with work demand to predict individual differences in psychological distress, however social support moderated the impact of trait anxiety on strain.     

Locus of Control and Social Support: Clarifiers of the Relationship Between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction

The present study examined the role of social support and locus of control as determinants of job satisfaction and as moderators of the job stress—job satisfaction relationship. Support from a variety of sources focusing on problems at work was found to be stress buffering for internals whereas supervisory support was directly related to job satisfaction for externals. Type of support (integration) was associated with job satisfaction depending on perceptions of locus of control. In addition, different dimensions of locus of control (internal, external-chance, external-powerful others) had differing effects on job satisfaction independent of levels of social support. It is concluded that the buffering effect of social support may be applicable to job stress only when that support is content specific (issues at work) and individuals receiving such support believe they can impact their outcomes (internals on locus of control). The implication of these findings are discussed in terms of practical application in work organizations.     

Dimensions of social support in the experience of work engagement in middle age: A Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study

So far, the relationship between the various dimensions of social support and work engagement has not been widely examined in the literature. In this study, we examined the relationship of social support at work (from a colleague or supervisor) and social support in one’s private life (from a spouse, relative or friend) with various dimensions of work engagement (vigor, dedication and absorption). The participants (N = 5,259–5,376, 46 years-old, 52.7% women) came from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 study. Social support was evaluated with the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ), and work engagement was assessed with a short version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9). The data were analyzed using linear regression analyses. The results showed that high social support at work (p < 0.001) and in one’s private life (p < 0.001) were associated with higher total work engagement, higher vigor, higher dedication, and higher absorption. These findings were adjusted for gender, marital status, education and occupational status. The results were essentially unchanged when they were additionally adjusted for job strain and effort-reward imbalance. To conclude, our findings indicate that the experience of overall social support may play a role in the experience of work engagement.     

Job demands and psychological well-being: Moderating role of occupational self-efficacy and job social support among mid-career academics

The study investigated the moderating role of occupational self-efficacy and job social support on the relationship between job demands and psychological well-being among mid-career academics. Participants were 203 academics at three public Nigerian universities (female = 37.93%; mean years of service = 8.58 years, SD = 2.20). The academics completed measures of job demands, occupational self-efficacy, job social support, and psychological well-being. Moderated regression analysis of the data suggested only occupational self-efficacy to moderate the relationship between work demands and psychological well-being. Findings underpin the buffering effects of work self-efficacy in employee psychological well-being with high job demands.     

Social control,social support,and companionship in older adults' family relationships and friendships

Social control, social support, and companionship represent basic elements of many close relationships, yet we know relatively little about how these distinctive elements separately and jointly influence relationship quality. Control and support may have incompatible effects, with efforts by a family member or friend to influence a focal person's behavior undermining the sense of support in the relationship. We examined the implications of control, support, and companionship for the perceived quality of older adults’family relationships and friendships in a sample of 180 older adults. Analyses indicated that the participants’family members and friends were differentially involved in performing control, support, and companionship functions. In addition, perceived relationship quality appeared to be anchored in somewhat different functions for family members versus friends. The perceived quality of family ties was related to emotional support, companionship, and social control, whereas the perceived quality of ties with friends was related to emotional support, instrumental support, and companionship. Contrary to expectation, we found no evidence that social control detracted from perceived relationship quality or that social control interacted with social support in predicting relationship quality. The results help to extend existing knowledge of relationship specialization in later adulthood, and they underscore the usefulness of distinguishing social control, social support, and companionship.     

The relationship of work stressors and emotional support to strain in police officers

This study tested whether quantity and quality of social support and two sources of work stress (organizational stressors and job risk) predicted work strain in police officers, a high-risk occupational group. The participants were 135 police officers from a large metropolitan law enforcement agency who responded to questionnaires for assessing work stress, social support, exhaustion, and other strain symptoms. Emotional support and work stressors accounted directly for significant variance in emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and symptom frequency. Conflicted relationships, which are a source of both work stress and support, also contributed to strain. In contrast to previous findings, a reverse buffering effect for social support did not contribute to predicting strain. Stress management programs for police and other high-stress occupations should target increasing emotional support from supervisors and peers, and reducing conflict in job and family relationships.     

Factors affecting choice,satisfaction, and success in the female self-employed

The purpose of this study was to determine variables which predict occupational choice, satisfaction, and success in the self-employment of women. In order to investigate this question, a group of female owners was compared to groups of female managers and secretaries on six variables under consideration: achievement motivation, locus of control, sex-role “masculinity,” and availability of models for ownership—father, mother, and other. There were 47 women in each group.It was found that the six variables, considered simultaneously, discriminated among the three occupational groups. The owners were higher than secretaries in achievement motivation, locus of control internality, and sex-role “masculinity.” However, there were no significant differences between owners and managers on these variables. Owners had more parental models (both fathers and mothers) for ownership than either managers or secretaries. Owners, managers, and secretaries did not differ significantly in the number of nonparental models for ownership. Neither job satisfaction nor success in business ownership were found to be related to the six variables considered simultaneously.     

Coping in context: the role of stress, social support, and personality in coping

Personality and social relationships play an important role in almost every aspect of stress and coping. Daily process methods are particularly useful in elucidating how these factors might influence both responses to and outcomes of stress. Our work has linked both dimensions of personality, particularly the Big Five, and aspects of social relationships, particularly social support, to the likelihood of engaging in certain coping strategies and the effectiveness or outcomes of these coping strategies. In addition, we have found the effect of personality on coping and stress outcomes to vary by the situational context in which stress occurs. We review findings from our recent daily process studies of stress, coping, and social support. Further, we discuss the costs and benefits of the daily process methodology for addressing these questions, highlighting the clinical utility of findings gleaned with the use of this approach. Finally, we discuss future directions and applications of daily process methods to the study of stress and coping.     

Life events,social support and depression in haemodialysis patients

This study examined the effects of life events and social support on depression in 200 dialysis patients. The instruments used included the Beck Depression Inventory, a modified version of Sarason's Life Experiences Survey and a Social Support Inventory (SSI) constructed by the authors. The SSI consisted of five quantitative measures and three measures of perceived social support. These measures were found to be internally consistent and stable over time. Results showed that clinically depressed dialysis patients reported fewer positive life events and appraised life events more negatively than non‐depressed patients. The total number of life events and the number of negative life events were not found to differentiate between depressed and non‐depressed patients. With regard to social support variables, results showed that depressed patients reported less frequent actual contact and telephone contact with others and perceived a smaller amount and less availability of social support and less satisfaction with perceived social support along the functional dimensions of emotional, informational, appraisal and instrumental support and social companionship. The results were found to provide support for a main effect model of social support and not for a buffering model. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adverse Working Conditions, Job Insecurity and Occupational Stress: The Role of (Ir)rational Beliefs

Testing of REBT theory in the work environment is a relatively new research domain, with few promising studies, especially in the context of occupational stress. The aim of this study is to explore the role that irrational and rational beliefs play, as factors of cognitive appraisal, in the development of some of the occupational stress indicators, as well as possible interaction between stressful working conditions and irrational beliefs. A sample of 221 Serbian employees, mostly from the private and public sectors, participated in this study. The results of the hierarchical regression analyses indicate that irrational beliefs make an independent contribution to the prediction of distress and burnout, although that contribution is less prominent than that of stressors. Rational beliefs significantly predicted distress, but not work burnout. Finally, no significant interactions were found between stressors and IB/RB. It can be concluded that (ir)rational beliefs play a significant role in distress and burnout prediction, but no support for a diathesis-stress model of cognitive vulnerability to occupational stress has been found in the present study. The results will be discussed in the context of REBT theory and practice.     

STRESS, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AND HEALTH IN MARRIED PROFESSIONAL WOMEN WITH SMALL CHILDREN

Two hundred married professional women with small children were surveyed to investigate what types of occupational and role-conflict stresses are associated with physical and depressive symptoms, and whether social support could protect individuals from the negative health effects of stress. Six stress indices predicted physical and depressive symptoms, both Concurrently and 1 year later. These stresses reflected perceptions of lack of authority and influence on the job, sex discrimination, a heavy work load, work imposing on relaxation, family imposing on relaxation, and overall suffering from role conflict. Social support yielded no stress-buffering effects.     

The Social Language of Time: The Time Perspective–Social Network Connection

Time perspective (TP) is a pivotal cognitive process through which people perceive, interpret, and negotiate their physical and social worlds. This study identifies unique patterns in the quality of social relationships that were associated with different TP dimensions. Low support and high conflict with family characterized past-negative TP. Large networks and high support from family distinguished past positive TP. Large networks with more support and companionship from friends/acquaintances typified present hedonistic TP. Having highly supportive significant others was associated with high future TP. Multidimensional time perspective is an essential cognitive process influencing human social behavior.     

Giving and receiving social support at work: The roles of personality and reciprocity

Social support is an important variable in occupational stress research and theory, yet little is know about the factors that influence the amount of social support one gives, and receives at work. We examined personality (extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness) and reciprocity as potential antecedents to giving and receiving support from co-workers. Data collected from 108 participants employed in a number of organizations indicated that giving social support was positively associated with the receipt of social support. Both extraversion and agreeableness predicted giving and receiving non-job support and positive work-related support. The relationship between personality and social support received was, in many cases, mediated by social support given.