On the interpretation of removable interactions: A survey of the field 33 years after Loftus

In a classic 1978 Memory & Cognition article, Geoff Loftus explained why noncrossover interactions are removable. These removable interactions are tied to the scale of measurement for the dependent variable and therefore do not allow unambiguous conclusions about latent psychological processes. In the present article, we present concrete examples of how this insight helps prevent experimental psychologists from drawing incorrect conclusions about the effects of forgetting and aging. In addition, we extend the Loftus classification scheme for interactions to include those on the cusp between removable and nonremovable. Finally, we use various methods (i.e., a study of citation histories, a questionnaire for psychology students and faculty members, an analysis of statistical textbooks, and a review of articles published in the 2008 issue of Psychology and Aging) to show that experimental psychologists have remained generally unaware of the concept of removable interactions. We conclude that there is more to interactions in a 2 × 2 design than meets the eye.     

Dynamic analyses of mother-child interactions in functional and dysfunctional dyads: a synergetic approach

Describes the application of a new analytical approach (derived from synergetics, a complex dynamic systems theory) to home observational data of mother–child interactions in average dyads and dyads with children referred for disruptive behavior problems at home and school (n = 11 in each group). Results show that (1) the two groups differed in their daily interactions in predictable ways, and (2) the most frequent patterns of interactions observed in the two groups brought them back repeatedly to behave in similar ways toward each other. The findings are in keeping with a body of literature on mother–child interactions. However, they add to it by providing multivariate, graphical representations of these interactions and by offering a conceptual framework within which to move from an observational to an inferential level of analysis. At that level, the transactional processes that are characteristic of functional and dysfunctional relationships may become apparent.     

An analysis of the relationship of teachers' reported use of classroom management strategies on types of classroom interactions

The results of an investigation to determine teachers' reported use of classroom management strategies and their relationship to teacher and student interactions are presented. We interviewed 20 teachers to determine how they developed and used classroom management strategies, and then observed the interactions of these teachers with children with serious behavior disorders (SBD). Results identified two groups of teachers: one that scored high on planned use of the strategies, and one that scored low. Comparisons between the two groups of the interaction patterns revealed small, but statistically significant differences in the mean length and total percent time involved in positive interactions. The group reporting higher use of the management strategies engaged in positive interactions which were longer in duration than the interactions of the group reporting lower use. The results are discussed in terms of further research needs and implications for teacher training programs.     

Daily experiences of intimacy: A study of couples

The present study examined people's working definitions of intimacy, which emerge through daily interactions that are perceived as intimate by the participant. We proposed that working definitions should be reflected in a set of interaction characteristics that prompt relationship partners to label their interaction as intimate. Participants were 113 cohabiting couples who completed questionnaires and kept diaries of their interactions for 1 week. Interaction characteristics explaining perceived intimacy were interaction pleasantness, disclosure of private information, the expression of positive feelings, the perception of being understood by one's partner, and the disclosure of emotion. Further, more satisfied couples perceived their interactions as more intimate and showed stronger associations between interaction intimacy and partner disclosure than did less satisfied couples. Findings indicated that couple characteristics are more salient than person characteristics as predictors of intimacy in interactions. The deepest need of man, then, is the need to overcome his separate‐ness, to leave the prison of his aloneness. The absolute failure to achieve this aim means insanity, because the panic of complete isolation can be overcome only by such a radical withdrawal from the world outside that the feeling of separation disappears–because the world outside, from which one is separated, has disappeared.     

STIGMA MANAGEMENT IN NORMAL-STIGMATIZED INTERACTIONS: TEST OF THE DISCLOSURE HYPOTHESIS AND A MODEL OF STIGMA ACCEPTANCE

This study explored the efficacy of disclosure as a stigma management strategy in normal-stigmatized interactions. A laboratory experiment was conducted using confederates to simulate three classes of stigmas. As predicted, reactions of normals (nonstigmatized subjects) were uniform across stigmas. While there is some indication that disclosure may reduce uncertainty in normal-stigmatized interactions, no support obtained for the hypothesis that disclosure about a stigma increases acceptance of the bearer. Path analysis of the data indicated a process leading from uncertainty, tension, and attraction to acceptance/rejection, as expected. Findings are discussed in terms of stigma attributions and relational development.     

Mothers’ Trait Verbal Aggressiveness as a Predictor of Maternal and Child Behavior During Playtime Interactions

This article explores associations between mothers’ trait verbal aggressiveness (VA) and maternal and child behavior during playtime interactions. Forty mothers completed a 10‐minute play period with one of their children (range = 3–8 years) and then responded to D. A. Infante and C. J. Wigley’s (1986) trait VA scale. Mothers’ trait VA was associated positively (r = .48) with their rate of directing and inversely (r =?.44) with their child’s rated cooperation. Qualitative analyses of a subset (n = 8) of interactions suggest that mothers high in trait VA used directives to control the choice, rate, and duration of activities, and used physical negative touch along with directives, more than low‐VA mothers. Behaviors associated with trait VA occur even during brief mother–child interactions in which triggers for aggressive behavior largely are absent.     

THE ANIMAL BODY MULTIPLE: SCIENCE,RELIGION, AND THE INVENTION OF HALAL STUNNING

This article proposes a specific kind of ontological investigation in the field of science and religion. I argue that science and religion can create distinct practices that enact multiple realities, and thus they should be seen as more than different views of the same world. By analyzing the details of scientific experiments crucial for the invention of halal stunning, I demonstrate that religion and science are both permeable to the social, the biological, and to each other, and that seemingly incommensurable realities can co-occur in the body of an animal. Here, animals’ modes of existence are interdependent with the technologies being used, and with the web of interactions that they are drawn into. In the process of inventing halal stunning, it is not so much about the same animal body that is thought about differently as it is about animals spanning across multiple, physiological, realities as they are recruited into different webs of interactions to create a new slaughter method.     

Rural Chinese youth during the transition into adulthood: Family dynamics and psychological adjustment

Rural youth in China experience numerous challenges during their transition into adulthood. Yet, research on this transition and its relevant influential factors is rare. Through the lens of family systems theory, this study examined the impacts of family dynamics (i.e., interparental and parent–adolescent interactions) in adolescence on the psychological adjustment of youth as they transition into adulthood. Participants were 1330 youth and their mothers in rural Gansu. In 2004, mothers completed questionnaires of interparental and parent–adolescent interactions when youth were adolescents (M_age = 15.03, SD = 1.15). In 2009, youth completed questionnaires of depression and self-esteem when they were emerging adults (M_age = 20.03, SD = 1.15). Results of structural equation modelling suggested that while interparental interactions in adolescence were not associated with the psychological adjustment of youth in emerging adulthood, positive parent–adolescent interactions in adolescence predicted better psychological adjustment of youth in emerging adulthood. Furthermore, mediation analysis showed that although interparental interactions did not directly affect the psychological adjustment of youth, they were positively associated with parent–adolescent interactions, which in turn contributed to the psychological adjustment of youth. The results reveal an enduring influence of family dynamics on psychological adjustment among rural Chinese youth during the transition into adulthood.     

Many-body potential for nitrogen in α-iron

N atom is one of the most frequent foreign interstitial atoms in α-iron along with C atoms. The Fe–C potential has been well-developed and can reproduce many significant interactions of C with point defects present in α-iron. However, there exists no satisfactory Fe–N potential to describe the interactions of N with point defects. Here, we develop a many-body potential for N in α-iron. The potential parameters are determined by fitting to ab initio data, which includes energetics, configurations, and relaxations of Fe atoms close to N atom. This potential successfully describes the interactions of Fe–N across a wide range of defect environments. The potential employs the embedded atom method form and hence is appropriate for large-scale molecular dynamics simulation.     

Leveraging Motivational Mindsets to Foster Positive Interracial Interactions

As the United States becomes increasingly diverse, interracial contact will become considerably less rare. Much research has suggested that interracial interactions are often stressful and uncomfortable for both Whites and racial minorities. Bringing together several bodies of research, the present article outlines a motivational perspective on the dynamics of intergroup contact. To this end, we consider the roles of three motivational mindsets that have the potential to shape interactions to be less cognitively depleting and more enjoyable for both interactants. In particular, we consider the effects of (i) approach and avoidance motivation (Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundation of Social Behavior, 1990, New York: Guilford Press), (ii) promotion and prevention regulatory focus (American Psychologist, 52 , 1997, 1280), and (iii) learning and performance goals (Psychological Review, 95 , 1988, 256) in shaping the dynamics of interracial contact. We suggest that investigations into these motivational mindsets will offer further insight into how and why interracial interactions go awry and will assist in the development of strategies and interventions that facilitate more smooth and enjoyable contact experiences.     

The development of the family alliance from pregnancy to toddlerhood and children outcomes at 18 months

This paper presents a longitudinal study of the development of family interactions from pregnancy to toddlerhood. Family interactions are increasingly acknowledged as a predictive factor for children's psychopathological outcomes. We used an observational setting, the Lausanne Trilogue Play, to evaluate the ‘family alliance’, namely, the quality of interactive coordination between family members. Families participated at the 5th month of pregnancy, and at 3‐ and 18‐months after birth. The sample (N=39) consisted of non‐referred primiparous families. Results show that (i) family alliance is stable during the first two years for most families: the quality of prenatal interactions between parents and a baby doll is thus predictive of the subsequent interactions with the actual child; (ii) there are links, but only a few, between family interactions and children outcomes reported by parents. Methodological issues (observation versus self‐reported questionnaires) are discussed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sibling relationship quality in early adolescence: child and maternal perceptions and daily interactions

Correspondence between child and maternal perceptions of sibling relationship quality (standards, actual ratings, problems) and children's reports of daily interactions were assessed in 40 early adolescent children (M age=11.5 yrs) and their mothers (n=32). Children completed the Sibling Relationship Questionnaire (Furman & Buhrmester, 1985. Child Development, 56, 448–461) and Daily Checklist ratings of sibling interactions for 14 days. Mothers completed the Parental Expectations and Perceptions of Children's Sibling Relationship Questionnaire (Kramer & Baron, 1995. Family Relations, 44, 95–103). Overall, findings revealed correspondence between child perceptions of sibling warmth and maternal ratings of standards, actual ratings, and problems in sibling warmth but not conflict and rivalry. Maternal and child perceptions of sibling relationship qualities were positively associated with children's reports of ongoing interactions. Finally, regression analyses identified unique maternal and child correlates for both happy and prosocial daily interactions. Findings are discussed in light of recent research and theory on family dynamics. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The single latin square design in psychological research

The expected value of mean square concept is used to determine the effects of the presence of interactions in the single Latin square design onF tests. The results indicate that as the number of random effects included in the experiment increase, moreF tests are unbiased, and that some of these are validF tests. However, whenF test bias does occur it is almost always of a negative nature so that the conclusions stated are conservative ones. PositiveF test bias may occur when the triple interaction is extant and when zero or one random variate is included in the experiment.     

The Family Alliance Assessment Scales: Steps Toward Validity and Reliability of an Observational Assessment Tool for Early Family Interactions

We present the first steps in the validation of an observational tool for father-mother-infant interactions: the FAAS (Family Alliance Assessment Scales). Family-level variables are acknowledged as unique contributors to the understanding of the socio-affective development of the child, yet producing reliable assessments of family-level interactions poses a methodological challenge. There is, therefore, a clear need for a validated and clinically relevant tool. This validation study has been carried out on three samples: one non-referred sample, of families taking part in a study on the transition to parenthood (normative sample; n = 30), one referred for medically assisted procreation (infertility sample; n = 30) and one referred for a psychiatric condition in one parent (clinical sample; n = 15). Results show that the FAAS scales have (1) good inter-rater reliability and (2) good validity, as assessed through known-group validity by comparing the three samples and through concurrent validity by checking family interactions against parents’ self-reported marital satisfaction.     

Prenatal Representations of Family in Parents and Coparental Interactions as Predictors of Triadic Interactions During Infancy

In this study, we explored the predictive role of family interactions and family representations in mothers and fathers during pregnancy for postnatal mother–father–infant interactions during the first 2 years after birth. Families (N = 42) were seen at the fifth month of pregnancy and at 3 and 18 months after birth. During pregnancy, parents were asked to play with their baby at the first meeting by using a doll in accordance with the procedure of the prenatal Lausanne Trilogue Play (LTP; A. Corboz‐Warnery & E. Fivaz‐Depeursinge, 2001; E. Fivaz‐Depeursinge, F. Frascarolo‐Moutinot, & A. Corboz‐Warnery, 2010). Family representations were assessed by administering the Family System Test (T. Gehring, 1998). Marital satisfaction and the history of the couple were assessed through self‐reported questionnaires. At 3 and 18 months, family interactions were assessed in the postnatal LTP. Infant temperament was assessed through parent reports. Results show that (a) prenatal interactions and child temperament are the most important predictors of family interactions and (b) paternal representations are predictive of family interactions at 3 months. These results show that observational assessment of “nascent” family interactions is possible during pregnancy, which would allow early screening of family maladjustment. The findings also highlight the necessity of taking into account paternal representations as a significant variable in the development of family interactions.     

Christian–Muslim Relations in China and Japan in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries

ABSTRACT

Building on entries written for Christian–Muslim Relations: A Bibliographic History, this article explores Christian–Muslim relations in China and Japan in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The first half of the article considers Christian–Muslim relations amongst the Japanese in and outside Japan. Direct, indirect and potential interactions and contemporaneous commentaries are explored in order to build a picture of the sort of Christian–Muslim interactions that took place. However, due to the sparsity of sources, this section seeks more to develop and open potential avenues of enquiry than to provide definitive answers. The second section focuses on Christian–Muslim interactions in the work of Matteo Ricci and suggests that Christian–Muslim interactions in East Asia generally, and in China more specifically, were significant not only to the Jesuit mission itself, but also to the shaping of European knowledge of the East.     

Does customer aggression more strongly affect happy employees? The moderating role of positive affectivity and extraversion

Customer abusive behavior has been found to be a major source of stress for service workers. The main purpose of the present research was to investigate the moderating role of positive affectivity (PA) on the relationship between customer verbal aggression and organizational outcomes. Three studies, based on three separate samples of service employees (Study 1: N = 187; Study 2: N = 422, Study 3: N = 156) demonstrated that frequency of customer aggression was a strong predictor of job-induced tension, job-related attitudes and emotional dissonance even after controlling for negative affectivity. A primary finding of this research was that positive disposition of employees did not reduce the negative consequences of interactions with aggressive customers, but rather increased them. The research provides additional support for the notion that positive disposition can be associated with unfavorable organizational outcomes in certain situation. The results also point out that those who are more likely to be negatively affected by frequent interactions with aggressive customers, are the very service workers that organizations tend to value most. Implications for management and future research are discussed.     

Effects of quantity and quality of home proximal processes on Dutch,Surinamese–Dutch and Turkish–Dutch pre‐schoolers’ cognitive development

This study examines the effects of mother–child literacy and problem solving interactions on 3–4‐year‐old children's cognitive development in a sample of Dutch middle‐class, Dutch lower‐class, Surinamese and Turkish immigrant families (n=130). Following the bioecological model of Bronfenbrenner and Ceci, mother–child book reading and problem solving interactions are viewed as proximal processes actualizing genetic cognitive potential. Interactions are studied from a quantitative perspective, based on questionnaire data, concerning frequency of exposure to these interactions, and a qualitative perspective, based on observational data, concerning affective quality and cognitive content. The study was designed as a 1 year longitudinal study. It was found that effects of mother–child interactions on cognitive development differed across the groups, controlling for earlier cognitive competence and family's SES. The findings are interpreted within the frame of the bioecological model and the behavioral genetic research paradigm. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Narrative models of action and interaction

This paper explores some issues which a humanlike story system ought to encompass, but which are usually not in the main focus of narrative models since Propp. We argue that knowledge about actions and interactions can account not only for how stories are constructed, but also for why some stories are more interesting and enduring than others. We analyze a traditional English folktale in these terms, and show how classes of surface expressions make recoverable the underlying structures and dependencies that schema-based understanders comprise.     

Interrelationships between temperament characteristics and first-grade teacher-student interactions

The relationships between temperament characteristics and first-grade teacherstudent interaction were investigated. It was hypothesized that the temperament characteristics of Adaptability and Approach/Withdrawal would be potent predictors of teacher-student interactions since they had been found previously to be strong predictors of children's emotional and behavioral adjustment to school. The teachers of 105 first-grade children completed temperament questionnaires during the early part of the academic year, and their interactions with the children were observed soon thereafter. The teacher temperament ratings were factor-analyzed, and regression models were generated to predict classroom interactions. The study's hypothesis was supported, and three separate temperament dimensions were found to be predictive of classroom interactions. Suggestions are made for future extensions of the findings.