Implicit Leadership Theories: Prototypes for New Leaders

Followers' implicit leadership theories for new group leaders, including their prototypes of new-leader behavior, consist of organized expectations. If met, these expectations may afford a leader greater influence. Subjects' prototypes for new leaders were assessed by subjecting an 87 x 87 co-occurrence matrix of leader behaviors, based on subjects' similarity classifications, to hierarchical cluster analysis. At the proposed basic level of hierarchy (Rosch, 1978) were 16 categories of expectations for leader behavior, including giving ideas to the group, being responsible, and accepting others, which formed four abstract superordinate categories: learning the group's goals, taking charge, being a nice person, and being nervous. The results are discussed with relation to (a) the synthesis of the universal-trait and situation-contingent-behavior approaches for predicting leadership effectiveness, (b) cross-situational and cross-cultural comparisons of leader categorizations, (c) expectations for established leaders, and (d) leader selection and training.     

Implicit and explicit memory for odors: Hemispheric differences

In two experiments, implicit and explicit tests were used to investigate the lateralization of odor memory. Odors were at all times presented monorhinically. At test, odors were presented to either the ipsi- or the contralateral side of the nostril used for inspection. In Experiment 1, participants were first primed to a set of odors. At test, response latencies for odor identification were measured. The results were that priming odors tested via the left but not the right nostril were identified faster than control odors. In Experiment 2, a similar design probed episodic recognition memory. Memory performance did not differ between the left and right nostrils, but the measures of response latency favored the right side. The study demonstrates that it is possible to tap differences in memory performance between the cerebral hemispheres through monorhinic presentation of odors in healthy persons, and that these differences depend on the test nostril rather than the inspection nostril.     

品德语词的内隐记忆发展研究初探

实验采用内隐记忆加工分离(再认型)程序设计,考察了小学、中学、大学三个年龄组被试对道德词、不道德词、中性词三类语词的内隐与外显记忆成绩,结果发现：对不道德词的记忆具有更强的内隐性特征;中学生确实处于道德发展的一个特殊阶段或者转折阶段;道德认知的内隐研究应成为道德心理研究的一个新视角。     

Implicit memory for new associations: The pictorial influence

A series of experiments was conducted in order to show that implicit memory for new associations is not always dependent on semantic integrative processing during study. The material used in these experiments differed from traditional studies that employed pairs of unrelated words. Instead, targets (words in Exps. 1 and 2 and pictures in Exps. 3 and 4) were encoded in the context of an unrelated picture. The implicit tests used were word-stem completion (Exps. 1, 2, and 3) and picture-fragment identification (Exp. 4). The explicit test was word-stem cued recall (Exps. 1, 2, and 3) and picture-fragment cued recall (Exp 4). For implicit tests, context effects were not obtained using words as targets with a non-integrative semantic-elaboration encoding task (Exp. 1). When an integrative semantic-elaboration encoding task was used, a standard context effect emerged (Exp. 2) for implicit memory. Importantly, with pictures as targets, context effects appeared without integrative semantic encoding (Exps. 3 and 4). However, context effects were obtained for all conditions of cued recall. Results are discussed with regard to the concept of unitization.     

Suicide: Right and reason

Ethical issues surrounding the act of suicide are confounded by the difference between the complexity of suicide and the popular and professional clinical view of suicide. In elaborating these different views, it is shown that the dominant view of suicide as a manifestation of mental illness has a weak scientific base and limits our efforts at understanding the multi-faceted concept “suicide.” In particular, the rationality of those who kill themselves is examined. Finally, the right of a person in our society to take his or her own life is supported; the state is shown to have no base for a compelling interest in preventing suicide.     

A reason for theoretical terms

The presence of nonobservational vocabulary is shown to be necessary for wide application of a conservative principle of theory revision.Support for this research was provided by the Office of Naval Research under contract No. N00014-87-K-0401. We thank Daniel Andler and Clark Glymour for helpful discussion.     

内隐关系评估程序:内隐态度测量的新方法

内隐关系评估程序(implicit relational assessment procedures,简称IRAP)是Barnes等人于2006基于关系结构理论(relational frame theory,简称RFT)提出的一种全新的测量内隐态度的研究方法,该方法采用的是一种计算机化的判断任务,以反应时为指标,被试通过对目标词进行关系判断,从而考察个体的内隐态度.本文主要阐述内隐关系评估程序的由来、关系结构理论与内隐关系评估程序的操作,并对内隐关系评估程序的性能和应用等进行了介绍.     

Implicit memory for textual materials

As a word moves from isolation in a list to being contextually bound in meaningful discourse, its probability of priming in tests of implicit memory decreases. The present experiments explore whether considerable priming effects can be revealed with conceptual tests of implicit memory as compared to perceptual tests. In the study phase, meaningful actions were described within a coherent text. In Experiment 1 subjects elaborated half of the actions by visual imagery. In Experiment 2, subjects elaborated the actions by enacting them symbolically. In both experiments, subjects in a control condition were simply required to read the same activities. In Experiment 2, a further group of subjects had to detect orthographic errors. The results demonstrated reliable effects of implicit memory in terms of associations with verbs repeated from the studied text. This form of repetition priming for textual materials in a conceptual test of implicit memory was enhanced by both types of elaboration. A word-stem completion task for the same targets revealed a less pronounced and inconsistent priming effect, uninfluenced by both types of elaboration. But the latter form of perceptual priming was found to be more pronounced within the error-detection condition. Measures of explicit memory showed similar effects of elaborative encoding conditions but there were some dissimilarities to measures of implicit memory, too. In general and in accordance with a transfer-appropriate processing view, conceptual tests rather than perceptual tests may be more suitable for detecting effects of implicit memory within the domain of text processing.     

Implicit open-mindedness: Evidence for and limits on stereotype malleability

Although stereotypes have traditionally been regarded as stable, research has documented their considerable malleability. One potential source of such malleability is intrusion into the stereotype of other concepts also activated when the stereotype is activated. In three experiments we assessed the extent to which stereotypes were influenced by stereotypic, stereotype-unrelated, or counter-stereotypic traits activated in a completely unrelated context immediately prior to stereotype measurement. Across experiments, priming of stereotype-unrelated traits increased their inclusion in the stereotype, whereas priming of counter-stereotypic traits had no effect in the subsequently assessed stereotype. In Experiment 3 we collected perceived dispersion measures and showed that although priming counter-stereotypic traits had no effect on overall characterization of the target group, it boosted perceptions of the group's variability. We accounted for these results by extending Higgins' (1989) Synapse Model of knowledge accessibility to the stereotype domain.     

Newton Algorithms for Analytic Rotation: an Implicit Function Approach

In this paper implicit function-based parameterizations for orthogonal and oblique rotation matrices are proposed. The parameterizations are used to construct Newton algorithms for minimizing differentiable rotation criteria applied to m factors and p variables. The speed of the new algorithms is compared to that of existing algorithms and to that of Newton algorithms based on alternative parameterizations. Several rotation criteria were examined and the algorithms were evaluated over a range of values for m. Initial guesses for Newton algorithms were improved by subconvergence iterations of the gradient projection algorithm. Simulation results suggest that no one algorithm is fastest for minimizing all criteria for all values of m. Among competing algorithms, the gradient projection algorithm alone was faster than the implicit function algorithm for minimizing a quartic criterion over oblique rotation matrices when m is large. In all other conditions, however, the implicit function algorithms were competitive with or faster than the fastest existing algorithms. The new algorithms showed the greatest advantage over other algorithms when minimizing a nonquartic component loss criterion.     

Dying for romance: risk taking as purposive behavior

Many approaches have been utilized to understand adolescent risk taking. The current research frames risk taking as a purposive behavior enacted with a specific goal in mind. Rather than assuming adolescent risk taking to be the result of arrogance or perceived invulnerability, adolescent risk taking is interpreted as a means to an end. Stemming from a Tolmanian framework, an alternative explanation for adolescent risk taking is tested: adolescents are willing to take risks to the extent that the risk is associated with a needed outcome - the greater the need for the outcome, the greater the willingness to take risks. To test the proposed hypothesis, 192 participants completed a survey about their need for a romantic relationship and their willingness to endure harm to obtain a romantic relationship. Data were collected at two time points. A hierarchical regression revealed that need for romance is a significant predictor of willingness to endure harm for romance, even after gender and sensation seeking are statistically controlled. Moreover, need for romance at T1 was shown to be predictive of harm for romance at T2. Results are supportive of taking a purposive - that is, Tolmanian - approach, as a means for interpreting adolescent behavior.     

When perspective taking increases taking: reactive egoism in social interaction

Group members often reason egocentrically, believing that they deserve more than their fair share of group resources. Leading people to consider other members' thoughts and perspectives can reduce these egocentric (self-centered) judgments such that people claim that it is fair for them to take less; however, the consideration of others' thoughts and perspectives actually increases egoistic (selfish) behavior such that people actually take more of available resources. A series of experiments demonstrates this pattern in competitive contexts in which considering others' perspectives activates egoistic theories of their likely behavior, leading people to counter by behaving more egoistically themselves. This reactive egoism is attenuated in cooperative contexts. Discussion focuses on the implications of reactive egoism in social interaction and on strategies for alleviating its potentially deleterious effects.     

Odor memory: taking stock

This review discusses the state of knowledge in odor memory within the framework of mainstream memory research. Experimental findings are structured around prevailing theoretical distinctions in the study of memory proper, including semantic-episodic memory and implicit-explicit memory. Unaided odor-identification performance is found to be approximately 40%-50% of the total stimulus set presented to Ss, although performance approaches the limit of memorial discrimination if Ss are given label training with feedback. Odor identification is conceptualized as a task with 3 major components and where performance falls on a continuum ranging from nonverbal feelings of familiarity to specific object names. Odor recognition is shown to be relatively stable over long retention intervals, and more than 1 explanation can account for this effect. It is also suggested that name recognition may contribute to the results obtained in odor-recognition experiments. Several possible avenues for future research on both explicit and implicit memory for odors are mentioned. It is concluded that although much is known already about memory for odors, many questions still remain unanswered or unasked.     

Implicit theories of relationships: Implications for relationship satisfaction and longevity

The role of implicit theories in romantic relationships was investigated in two studies. People holding a soulmate theory, who believed that finding the right person is most important for a satisfying relationship, were compared to people holding a work–it–out theory, who believed that effort is most important for building a successful relationship. In Study 1, college students (N = 527) completed a set of questionnaires, including measures of relationship theories and functioning within romantic relationships. Approximately 8 months later, a subset of these students (N = 176) completed a second set of questionnaires for Study 1. The implicit theories were highly stable over time (r = .74). For soulmate theorists, feelings that one’s specific partner is ideal predicted relationship satisfaction and relationship longevity to a greater extent than for work–it–out theorists. Whereas Study 1 investigated people’s theories of relationships as ends of a bipolar continuum, a separate study explored people’s theories of relationships as two unipolar dimensions. Findings from Study 2 (N = 266) supported a representation of the theories as two negatively correlated factors, and supported findings from Study 1 highlighting the role of the interaction between the relationship theories and partner fit in predicting relationship satisfaction.     

Implicit memory for auditorily presented threatening stimuli: a process-dissociation approach

The investigation of unconscious cognition involves especially problems with the methodology of measuring implicit and explicit proportions of different task performances. In this study the process dissociation procedure of Jacoby and its modification within the multinomial modelling framework for an indirect word-nonword-discrimination task is applied to a sample of 45 healthy students. The paradigm includes acoustically presented stimuli. During a learning phase, subjects listened to a series of neutral and threatening words. Performance was tested by letting subjects decide whether a presented stimulus (masked with white noise at signal-noise ratio of -17 dB or unmasked) had been a word or a nonword. Within this paradigm, implicit cognition occurs when (a) a word is more probably correctly recognized as "word" after presentation during the learning phase (typical priming effect) or when (b) a nonword derived from a word is more probably falsely recognized as "word" after its corresponding word had been presented during the learning phase (effect of implicit cognition given perceptual fluency). Frequencies for hits and false alarms were analyzed within the multinomial model which allows estimating parameters for the correct discrimination of words (c), the response bias (b), the classical priming effect (u1), and the parameter for the priming effect of "old" nonwords (u2). Under masked stimuli the multinomial model showed implicit cognition, an effect not equally found for neutral and threatening words. Threatening words exhibited a significantly higher portion of implicit cognition than neutral ones. Given the statistical complexity of multinomial models, the application of this method was explained in detail.     

Taking realization seriously: no cure for epiphobia

The realization relation that allegedly holds between mental and physical properties plays a crucial role for so-called non-reductive physicalism because it is supposed to secure both the ontological autonomy of mental properties and, despite their irreducibility, their ability to make a causal difference to the course of the causally closed physical world. For a long time however, the nature of realization has largely been ignored in the philosophy of mind until a couple of years ago authors like Carl Gillett, Derk Pereboom, or Sydney Shoemaker proposed accounts according to which realization is understood against the background of the so-called ‘causal theory of properties’. At least partially, the hope was to solve the problem of mental causation, in particular the kind of causal exclusion reasoning made famous by Jaegwon Kim, in a way acceptable to non-reductive physicalists. The paper asks whether a proper explication of the realization relation can indeed help explain how physically realized mental properties can be causally efficacious in the causally closed physical world and argues for a negative answer: it is important for the non-reductive physicalist to understand what exactly the realization relation amounts to, but it does not solve the problem of mental causation.     

Auditory Priming for Nonverbal Information: Implicit and Explicit Memory for Environmental Sounds

Three experiments examined repetition priming for meaningful environmental sounds (e.g., clock ticking, tooth brushing, toilet flushing, etc.) in a sound stem identification paradigm using brief sound cues. Prior encoding of target sounds together with their associated names facilitated subsequent identification of sound stems relative to nonstudied controls. In contrast, prior exposure to names alone in the absence of the environmental sounds did not prime subsequent sound stem identification performance at all (Experiments 1 and 3). Explicit and implicit memory were dissociated such that sound stem cued recall was higher following semantic than nonsemantic encoding, whereas sound priming was insensitive to manipulations of depth encoding (Experiments 2 and 3). These results extend the findings of long-term repetition priming into the auditory nonverbal domain and suggest that priming for environmental sounds is mediated primarily by perceptual processes.