Responses of boys and girls to a behaviorally focused school attitude questionnaire

In response to the Teacher Approval-Disapproval Scale (TADS), elementary school boys report receiving more personal disapproval and less personal approval from their teachers than do elementary school girls, but boys and girls do not differ in reporting how frequently their teachers distribute approvals and disapprovals to the whole class. Boys' attitudes toward being in the classroom are more negative than girls', but there is also a tendency for boys to perceive the whole class's attitude as being more negative than do girls. These results suggest that sex differences in school attitude are at least partially determined by differential teacher behavior toward boys and girls.     

Development of consensus about child oppositional behavior: Increased convergence with entry into school

This study examines the relation between parent and teacher ratings of oppositional behaviors in children from kindergarten to second grade. One cross-sectional sample of 85 boys in kindergarten, first, and second grade was assessed for problem behavior on the basis of reports from the children, parents, teachers, and trained observers. The second sample consisted of parent and teacher ratings of both boys and girls in a longitudinal design at 5 and 7 years of age. Results from both studies indicate that agreement does increase around the time of the child's transition into school and that each informant influences the ratings of the others over time.     

Childhood disruptive behaviors and family functioning in clinically referred children: Are girls different from boys?

Baseline assessments of 4 to 8-year-old children, 26 girls and 101 boys, referred to outpatient treatment for disruptive behaviors, were examined, focusing on possible differences between the functioning of boys and girls and their families. Child variables included diagnostic information, measures of disruptive behaviors, social competence, and independent observations of child behaviors. A variety of family variables, such as information regarding parenting practices, parental stress, and depression were included. Teacher reports of disruptive behaviors and social competence at school were included. Teacher ratings of child functioning indicated that boys displayed significantly more externalizing behaviors and they were less socially competent than girls. Parents perceived both girls and boys as highly oppositional and aggressive, and generally speaking, differences were few. Nevertheless, the level of stress was higher in girls' than in boys' families, and mothers of girls reported of higher levels of depressive symptoms. Girls and boys did not differ regarding diagnostic status.     

Adult sex role orientation and perceptions of aggressive interactions between girls and boys

We explored how the sex role orientation of adult observers related to their perceptions of boys' and girls' aggression. Sex-typed and androgynous undergraduate subjects viewed videotaped scenes in which one member of a girl-boy pair behaved aggressively toward the other. Unlike androgynous subjects, sex-typed subjects judged boys' aggression to be more intentional than girls' and proposed more severe reprimands for aggressive boys than for aggressive girls. Androgynous subjects recommended more severe reprimands for aggressive girls than sex-typed subjects did. Overall, sex-typed subjects differed from androgynous subjects not in their assessment of the degree of aggressiveness boys and girls expressed, but in their perceptions of the purposefulness of boys' and girls' aggression and how harshly to respond to it. We speculated that sex-typed subjects did not consider girls' aggression to be serious enough to warrant severe reprimands. Thus, during socialization, sex-typed adults perhaps model less aggression in response to girls' aggressive acts than to boys'. In addition, sex-typed adults may convey to girls that their aggression is not an effective means of obtaining adult intervention.     

Gendered Capital: Childhood Socialization and the ??Boy Crisis?? in Education

This study examined the effect of gender socialization on kindergarten grades using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study- Kindergarten Cohort. The sample consisted of 6,394 children (3,177 girls; 3,217 boys) from across the United States. MANOVA and follow-up tests revealed that both boys and girls tend to participate in gender-typed activities. Girls are more likely to have positive school attitudes and exhibit positive social behavior; boys are more likely to have negative school attitudes. Regression analyses indicated that participation in ??female?? activities and positive social behavior positively affect grades; participation in ??male?? activities has no direct effect. Positive attitudes positively affect the grades of girls; negative attitudes negatively affect the grades of boys. Teacher evaluation practices are also considered.     

初中生偶像崇拜及其与生活目标和主观幸福感的关系:性别的调节作用

本研究以3587名初中生为对象,采用问卷测量法,考察了初中生偶像崇拜在性别和年级上的差异,及其与生活目标和主观幸福感的关系,并探究了性别在其中的调节作用。研究发现：（1）女生的偶像崇拜水平显著高于男生的,且偶像崇拜高水平组中女生人数显著多于男生,偶像崇拜低水平组中则相反;初一与初二年级间偶像崇拜的水平及在不同水平上的人数分布均无显著差异。（2）外在生活目标能够正向预测初中生的偶像崇拜水平,其中性别起调节作用,外在生活目标对女生偶像崇拜水平的影响大于男生。（3）性别对偶像崇拜影响初中生主观幸福感上也具有调节作用,即偶像崇拜水平负向预测初中女生的主观幸福感,对男生的主观幸福感则影响不显著。     

Same-sex imitation: The avoidance of cross-sex models or the acceptance of same-sex models?

This experiment examined whether acceptance of same-sex behavior and rejection of opposite-sex behavior contribute equally to the same-sex imitation effect in both boys and girls. Third- and fourth-grade children observed four male and four female peer models display preferences toward a variety of objects. For each object, only four models were asked for their preferences. In this way, it was possible for the objects to become sex-linked depending on the sex composition of the group of models endorsing a particular item. Subsequently, children were presented with pairwise combinations of the more masculine, feminine, or neutral objects and asked their preference. Results indicated that although there is no difference between boys' and girls' acceptance of same-sex behavior, boys tend to reject opposite-sex behavior more than girls.     

Developmental characteristics of figure drawings made by boys and girls ages five through eleven

526 children from the ages of 5 yr. through 11 yr. (257 boys and 269 girls) responded when asked to draw the figure of a man. Of the 68 characteristics investigated the girls' responses were significantly different from the boys' on 41 items (60%) while boys' responses were significantly different on 28 items (41%). Although there were significant differences in some responses they were not necessarily indicative of higher levels of performance. Given the number of boys and girls participating and the number of significant differences, the over-all significant difference was 0. There were, however, many significant differences found in the drawings made by boys and girls ages 5, 6 and 9 yr.     

A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems.

Gender differences observed in interpersonal and self-critical vulnerabilities, reactivity to stressful life events, quality of relationships, and self-concepts inform a multivariate theoretical model of the moderating effects of gender on internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence. To test this model, data were collected in a 1-year prospective study from an ethnically diverse sample of 460 middle school students. Increases in girls' internalizing symptoms, compared with boys', were partly explained by greater stability in girls' interpersonal vulnerabilities and greater magnitude in coefficients linking girls' relationships with parents and peers and internalizing problems. Boys' risks for externalizing problems, compared with girls', were partly explained by the greater stability in boys' vulnerability to self-criticism. Coefficients for most pathways in the model are similar for boys and girls.     

The development of attitudes toward dialect in Italian children

In the Italian public school system, local dialects are explicitly discouraged and children are pressured to master standard Italian. In this study, 95 southern Italian children were given a series of tasks to determine their level of dialect production and their attitudes toward their local dialect. Production of dialect decreases sharply from the first to the third grade, but then tends to stabilize, with a slight increase in dialect use by fourth and fifth grade boys. Hence the schools have not been entirely successful in eradicating dialect. However, attitude measures indicate that by the third grade children prefer Italian over the dialect at close to the 100% level. The schools have placed many children in a conflict situation, in which they have learned negative attitudes toward their own code but cannot completely master standard Italian. Sex differences may be related to a tendency to view dialect as more masculine. Implications of this study for bidialectical school programs in Italy and the United States are discussed.     

Effects of maternal employment on kindergarten and first-grade children's vocational aspirations

Relationships between young boys' and girls' occupational choices and their mothers' vocational participation were explored. Employment status and occupation were obtained for parents of 142 kindergarten and first-grade children attending public schools in an upper-middle-class community. A scale derived from the United States Census was used to score parents' occupations and children's occupational choices for sex-stereotyping. Results indicated that children whose mothers were currently employed chose a greater number of occupations and more masculine-oriented occupations than did children of nonemployed mothers. Girls whose mothers had selected nontraditional fields also tended to aspire to less sextraditional careers. A trend in this direction was also noted for boys. Significant differences were found between girls and boys for types of occupations selected, but not for numbers of vocational choices.This article is based on a reanalysis of data gathered for a doctoral dissertation submitted to Fordham University. The author would like to thank her advisor, Dr. Toby Tetenbaum, for help on various aspects of this study, and Dr. Sherle Boone and Dr. Alberto Montare for their useful comments.     

Gender and mathematics: attitudes and stereotype threat susceptibility in Italian children

Two experiments investigated the development of attitudes toward mathematics and stereotype threat susceptibility in Italian children. Experiment 1 involved 476 elementary school boys and girls and produced evidence of gender differences in self-confidence in one's own mathematical ability and in gender stereotyping of mathematics during elementary school. It also provided initial evidence for a decrement in 10-year-old girls' mathematics performance when stereotype threat was made salient by reminding participants that extraordinary achievement in mathematics is typically a male phenomenon. Experiment 2 (N=271) replicated these findings and expanded them to middle school-age participants. Its results suggest that during middle school, the patterns observed in elementary school consolidate, and the stereotypes begin to produce detrimental effects in girls.     

The change in perceived motor competence and motor task values during elementary school: A longitudinal cohort study

Participation in motor activities is essential for social interaction and life satisfaction in children. Self‐perceptions and task values have a central position in why children do or do not participate in (motor) activities. Investigating developmental changes in motor self‐perceptions and motor task values in elementary school children would provide vital information about their participation in motor activities. We therefore examined the change in, and associations between, self‐perceptions and task values of fine motor competence, ball competence, and athletic competence in 292 children from kindergarten to grade 4. We also investigated differences between boys and girls, and between children with motor problems and typically developing children. Results indicated that self‐perceptions and task values are domain specific and differ between boys and girls, but not between children with motor problems and typically developing children. Self‐perceptions were not associated with task values. Educators should address specific self‐perceptions to enhance participation into the corresponding motor activities in children between kindergarten and grade 4, and differences in self‐perceptions and task values between boys and girls should be taken into account.     

Sex-role ideology and children's drawings: Does the jack-o-lantern smile or scare?

Jack-o-lanterns drawn by kindergarteners were submitted to adult judges who were asked both to identify the child's gender from the drawing and to give reasons for the judgment made. Judges agreed that the characteristics distinguishing girls' from boys' drawings were use of details, neatness, colorfulness, smiling face, and symmetry; while boys' drawings differed from girls' in their frightening faces, messiness, incompleteness, and unconventionality. Judges were accurate about 60% of the time in identifying boys but only about 30% of the time in identifying girls, a statistically reliable difference.The cooperation of the kindergarten children in South Road (SR) and West Kingston (WK) schools, their teachers, Frances Streeter and Susan Wise, and their principals, John Fratiello and Richard Corcoran, is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also extended to the university students whose participation contributed to this investigation.     

GENDER, PEER RELATIONS, AND CHALLENGES FOR GIRLFRIENDS AND BOYFRIENDS COMING TOGETHER IN ADOLESCENCE

This article examines how girls' and boys' different peer cultures in middle childhood may set the stage for challenges in emerging heterosexual romantic relationships in adolescence. Two theoretical frameworks are presented for understanding gender differences in children's same-gender friendships and peer groups in middle childhood: the two cultures perspective ( Maccoby, 1998 ) and the emotional trade-offs perspective ( Rose & Rudolph, 2006 ). Emerging empirical evidence is presented to highlight how girls' and boys' gendered friendship qualities may be linked to difficulties girls and boys have when they come together in early romantic relationships. Preliminary longitudinal data are presented that suggest that girls' relational and boys' physical aggression toward same-gender peers in middle childhood may relate to having emotionally intense arguments in early adolescence. Implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.     

Sex differences in educational outcomes: A cross-national study

Through their organization and curricula, schools either promote separate roles for males and females or operate to minimize differences. This study describes sex differences in science and reading achievement and attitudes for nationwide samples of 14-year-old children in the United States, Sweden, and England. There are largely the same sex differences in all three countries: Male and female pupils have similar reading skills, while girls have more positive reading habits; males outperform females in science, with the smallest difference observed for biology; males have more positive attitudes toward science, except that females believe science to be at least as important a topic as boys do. There is no noteworthy increase in sex distinctions with one more year of schooling, from grade 8 to grade 9. However, in English coeducational schools, girls show a deceleration in science and vocabulary achievement relative to their male peers. Girls in English one-sex schools exceed their male counterparts in reading and several science subjects. It is hypothesized that the role of successful female teachers and peers, and the absence of social pressure from boys, may facilitate girls' learning in these areas. A study is proposed of specific school practices and the ways in which they determine sex discrepancies.An earlier version of this article was presented to the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, April 1976. The author is grateful to Heidi Wolfstetter-Kausch for assistance in researching background material for the article.     

Gender Differences in Preschoolers' and Kindergartners' Artistic Production and Preference

There are striking differences between boys' andgirls' art during the elementary school years, but it isunknown whether such artistic gender differences emergeearlier in childhood. We tested 20 preschoolers (12 boys, 8 girls) and 29 kindergartners (15boys, 14 girls), most White and middle-class, on threetasks to assess gender-stereotypicality in theirdrawings and preferences for pictures. As predicted, in a production task, boys and girls drewgender stereotypical pictures, though neither group wasextremely stereotypical. Interestingly, evenpre-representational preschoolers' scribbles were ratedas gender-stereotypical, despite the absence ofidentifiable thematic content. In a second task,children chose coloring-book sheets, previously ratedfor gender-stereotypicality, which they expected tocolor. Boys chose masculine and girls chose femininesheets. In a third task, boys and girls preferredgender-stereotypical pictures and were similar in howstrongly stereotypic their choices were. The tasksdemonstrate that gender differences in artistic productionand preference emerge in the preschool years, earlierthan previously reported. Beneficial future work wouldaddress relations between children's artistic production and preference and their genderschema flexibility and socializationexperiences.     

Eighteen month test-retest stability of the youth self report in a sample of Catalonian adolescents

The aim of this study is to assess the test-retest stability of the Spanish version of Youth Self Report after 18 mo. for a sample of 357 Catalonian high school students (158 boys and 199 girls). At Time 2 the girls' scores increased on Delinquent and Aggressive Behavior scales and, therefore on Externalizing scores. At Time 2 the boys' scores increased on Attention Problems and Delinquent Behavior and decreased on Anxious/Depressed, Social Problems, and Internalizing scales. Significant differences in the remaining scales were not observed. The test-retest intraclass correlations for the broad-band scales ranged between .62 (Internalizing) and .68 (Externalizing) and for the narrow-band scales between .37 and .67. The correlations for girls and boys were similar but slightly higher for girls on Anxious/Depressed and Thought Problems.     

累积生态风险与青少年的学业和社交能力：子女责任感的风险补偿与调节效应

以613名青少年（平均年龄13.96岁,女生372人）为被试,考察子女责任感在累积生态风险与男、女生学业能力和社交能力关系中的风险补偿与调节效应。多重回归分析表明：（1）累积生态风险对男、女生的学业能力、社交能力都具有显著的负向预测作用;（2）子女责任感可以正向预测累积生态风险背景下女生的学业能力以及男生的社交能力,因此具有风险补偿效应;（3）子女责任感在累积生态风险与女生学业能力之间起“风险缓冲”作用,在累积生态风险与女生社交能力的关系中却具有“风险增强”作用,出现了“韧性代价”的现象;（4）子女责任感在累积生态风险与男生学业能力、社交能力关系中的调节效应均不显著。以上结果初步表明,某些处境不利儿童的健康发展可能存在代价,对逆境儿童的韧性发展可能不宜过分乐观。     

Parental autonomy granting during adolescence: exploring gender differences in context

This study investigated the ways in which 2 indicators of parental autonomy granting, adolescents' decision-making input and parental knowledge of adolescents' daily experiences, differed as a function of contextual factors (i.e., parents' gender role attitudes or sibling dyad sex composition) and boys' and girls' personal qualities (i.e., gender, pubertal status, developmental status, or birth order) in a sample of 194 families with firstborn (M = 15.0 years) and second-born (M = 12.5 years) adolescents. Firstborns were granted more autonomy than second borns, especially in families with firstborn girls and second-born boys. Girls in families marked by traditional maternal gender role attitudes were granted fewer autonomy opportunities. Postmenarcheal second-born girls were granted more opportunities for autonomy than were premenarcheal second-born girls, but only in families with less traditional maternal gender role attitudes.