Categorization reduces the effect of context on hedonic preference

When moderately hedonically positive test stimuli are presented following better-liked context stimuli, preferences between the test stimuli are reduced. This reduction in preference, hedonic condensation, occurs in settings that also produce negative hedonic contrast?the phenomenon in which moderately hedonically positive test stimuli seem less positive when they follow better-liked context stimuli. Subjects who were instructed that the context and test stimuli were from different categories exhibited less hedonic condensation. Those categories have smaller hedonic ranges than does the full stimulus set. The increase in preference magnitude with reduction in size of the hedonic range is predicted by Parducci’s (1995) range-frequency model.     

EPS Prize Lecture. Licking and liking: the assessment of hedonic responses in rodents

Affective processes are a key determinant of behaviour: At its simplest, liked stimuli are approached while disliked stimuli are avoided. Although assessing hedonic responses in nonverbal animals can be difficult, one relatively tractable approach relies on detailed analyses of rodents' consummatory behaviour. Rodents typically produce rhythmic sets of licks that can be grouped into clusters on the basis of the intervals between licks. The mean number of licks in a cluster (cluster size) is directly related to the concentration of palatable and unpalatable solutions. These relationships suggest that lick cluster size might be a useful index of an animal's hedonic reaction to the solution being consumed. I begin by reviewing studies of conditioned flavour preference and aversion that support the idea that lick cluster size can provide useful information about rats' hedonic reactions. I then describe how this methodology has been used to address previously intractable issues in the investigation of contrast effects as well as revealing an analogue of effort justification effects that, in humans, are commonly explained in terms of cognitive dissonance reduction. Finally, I consider how lick analysis might provide information about hedonic responses in animal models of human psychiatric disorders. In all these cases, how an animal did something was particularly informative about why it was doing it.     

Mispredicting the hedonic benefits of segregated gains

The hedonic benefit of a gain (e.g., receiving $100) may be increased by segregating it into smaller units that are distributed over time (e.g., receiving $50 on each of 2 days). However, if these units are too small (e.g., receiving 1 cent on each of 10,000 days), they may fall beneath the person's hedonic limen and have no hedonic benefit at all. Do people know where their limens lie? In 6 experiments, participants predicted that the hedonic benefit of a large gain would be increased by segregating it into smaller units, and they were right; but participants also predicted that the hedonic benefit of a small gain would be increased by segregating it into smaller units, and they were wrong. Segregation of small gains decreased rather than increased hedonic benefit. These experiments suggest that people may underestimate the value of the hedonic limen and thus may oversegregate small gains.     

The categorization effect in hedonic contrast: Experts differ from novices

Test stimuli are rated as less “good” when they follow very good context stimuli than when they are presented alone. This diminution in rating is called hedonic contrast. Contrast is attenuated if the context and the test stimuli are perceived as being in different categories. Because experts use as their basic-level categories what are the subordinate levels for novices, they will categorize when novices do not. Therefore, in the following studies, both experts and novices showed hedonic contrast when attractive context orchids preceded more neutral test orchids. However, only the novices showed hedonic contrast when attractive context irises preceded the test orchids. Novices viewed the irises and the orchids as “flowers” and therefore members of the same category, resulting in contrast. Experts, however, viewed the irises and the orchids as being in different categories; therefore, hedonic contrast did not occur.     

Licking and liking: The assessment of hedonic responses in rodents

Affective processes are a key determinant of behaviour: At its simplest, liked stimuli are approached while disliked stimuli are avoided. Although assessing hedonic responses in nonverbal animals can be difficult, one relatively tractable approach relies on detailed analyses of rodents' consummatory behaviour. Rodents typically produce rhythmic sets of licks that can be grouped into clusters on the basis of the intervals between licks. The mean number of licks in a cluster (cluster size) is directly related to the concentration of palatable and unpalatable solutions. These relationships suggest that lick cluster size might be a useful index of an animal's hedonic reaction to the solution being consumed. I begin by reviewing studies of conditioned flavour preference and aversion that support the idea that lick cluster size can provide useful information about rats' hedonic reactions. I then describe how this methodology has been used to address previously intractable issues in the investigation of contrast effects as well as revealing an analogue of effort justification effects that, in humans, are commonly explained in terms of cognitive dissonance reduction. Finally, I consider how lick analysis might provide information about hedonic responses in animal models of human psychiatric disorders. In all these cases, how an animal did something was particularly informative about why it was doing it.

     

Evaluation as a function of correspondence and hedonic relevance

An experiment was conducted to test and refine some of the implications of Jones and Davis' (1965) model of the attribution process in person perception. Subjects read anecdotes about actors who performed either in-role (low correspondence) or out-of-role (high correspondence) behaviors which were positive, negative, or neutral in the subject's estimation (hedonic relevance). Respect and admiration for the actor were influenced by both hedonic relevance and correspondence (did the action reflect an inner attribute?), but liking and friendship were affected by hedonic relevance only. The implications for the evaluation process in person perception were discussed.     

Disconfirmed hedonic expectations produce perceptual contrast, not assimilation

In studies of hedonic ratings, contrast is the usual result when expectations about test stimuli are produced through the presentation of context stimuli, whereas assimilation is the usual result when expectations about test stimuli are produced through labeling, advertising, or the relaying of information to the subject about the test stimuli. Both procedures produce expectations that are subsequently violated, but the outcomes are different. The present studies demonstrate that both assimilation and contrast can occur even when expectations are produced by verbal labels and the degree of violation of the expectation is held constant. One factor determining whether assimilation or contrast occurs appears to be the certainty of the expectation. Expectations that convey certainty are produced by methods that lead to social influence on subjects' ratings, producing assimilation. When social influence is not a factor and subjects give judgments influenced only by the perceived hedonic value of the stimulus, contrast is the result.     

An exploration of the well-being benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic behaviour

Hedonia and eudaimonia have both been proposed as pathways to well-being. Past research in this area has predominantly focused on global cognitive evaluations of how one typically lives. Findings from such research lack practical relevance, and hence, this study aimed to investigate how actual hedonic and eudaimonic behaviour related to well-being and psychopathology. Participants (N?=?105) completed an array of well-being outcomes prior to completing an online diary, reporting actual instances of hedonic and eudaimonic behaviour. Participants spent more time engaged in hedonic activity than eudaimonic activity. Hedonic activity served an emotion regulation function, predicting positive affect, carefreeness, vitality, and life satisfaction. Hedonic behaviour also predicted reduced negative affect, depression, and stress. Eudaimonic behaviour predicted meaning in life and elevating experience. Both hedonic and eudaimonic behaviours predicted flourishing. These findings suggest that increasing hedonic and eudaimonic behaviours may be an effective way to increase well-being and reduce psychological distress.     

Helpfulness and economic impact of multidimensional rating systems: Perspective of functional and hedonic characteristics

Nowadays, the multidimensional rating systems are increasingly popular in practice to help consumers evaluate multiattribute products or services. This study aims to examine the helpfulness and economic impact of multidimensional rating systems and the moderating effect of product type (ordinary, premium) from the perspective of product line. To identify the different effects of different product characteristics on consumers' behavior, multidimensional ratings and textual reviews are classified into two different sets according to the product attributes (functional, hedonic). Besides, the effects of review valence are considered simultaneously. Econometric analysis and text mining are conducted on the real data from autohome.com , a leading Chinese automobile rating platform. Results show that (a) in terms of perceived helpfulness, reviews with positive functional ratings or with negative hedonic ratings are perceived more helpful for ordinary product, whereas reviews with positive hedonic ratings are perceived more helpful for premium product. (b) Regarding product sales, the impacts of functional and hedonic ratings on product sales are inverted U‐shape. Furthermore, for ordinary product, variance of functional ratings has a negative effect on product sales, whereas hedonic ratings variance has an opposite impact. Surprisingly, ordinary product consumers tend to pay more attention to the negative hedonic reviews, whereas premium product consumers concentrate more on the negative functional reviews. In summary, various influences of multidimensional reviews and ratings across product type on review helpfulness and product sales are deeply explored in this study, suggesting that firms' online marketing strategies should be contingent on product type and characteristics.     

Regulatory focus and preference reversal between hedonic and utilitarian consumption

This article explores the impact of consumers' regulatory goals on their relative focus on hedonic (versus utilitarian) benefits of products. Drawing from extant literature, we argue that promotion‐focused consumers will exhibit more favorable attitude towards a product when its hedonic benefits are highlighted in comparison to its utilitarian benefits. Prevention‐focused consumers on the other hand will exhibit more favorable attitude towards a product when its utilitarian benefits are highlighted in comparison to its hedonic benefits. We further argue that this effect is moderated by contextual factors, such as evaluation mode. In addition, we argue that the posited difference only holds when the hedonic and utilitarian products are evaluated individually. When the two products are evaluated jointly, both promotion and prevention‐focused individuals will exhibit more favorable attitude towards the hedonic product. Two studies were conducted to test the hypotheses and findings supported our predictions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

License to sin: Self‐licensing as a mechanism underlying hedonic consumption

Hedonic overconsumption is often considered to be caused by impulsive factors. The current paper investigates whether self‐licensing, relying on reasons to justify subsequent gratification, can also be included as a significant contributor to hedonic consumption. Two studies were conducted to investigate whether self‐licensing can account for an increase in hedonic consumption while ruling out impulsive factors such as resource depletion, negative affect, and visceral state as alternative explanations. A pilot study indicated that perceiving oneself as having invested greater effort and thus having a self‐licensing cue did not lead to a decline in self‐control capacity compared with not having a self‐licensing cue. The main study employed the same procedure and established that having a licensing cue did lead to increased snack intake while controlling for impulsive factors. Together, these studies support the notion that self‐licensing is a separate mechanism leading to hedonic gratification independent of impulsive factors. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Constitutive and instrumental goal orientations and their relations with eudaimonic and hedonic well-being

This study investigated an Aristotelian model of eudaimonic and hedonic well-being that distinguishes between goal orientations in which the means and ends are separable (instrumental) and in which the means and ends are inherently related (constitutive). Eudaimonic well-being was expected to be related to constitutive goal orientation and hedonic well-being was expected to be related to both constitutive and instrumental goal orientation. Personal identification with activities was expected to mediate the relationship between constitutive goal orientation and eudaimonic well-being. Personal enjoyment was expected to mediate the relationship between instrumental goal orientation and hedonic well-being. Factor analysis supported the independence of constitutive and instrumental goal orientation measures. As predicted, SEM results suggested that there were independent pathways to eudaimonic and hedonic well-being, with strong mediation in both pathways. Results were consistent with Aristotle's [Aristotle (1999). The Nicomachean ethics (M. Ostwald, Trans.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.] concept of eudaimonia and contribute to the growing literature exploring the contrast between eudaimonic and hedonic well-being.     

Metacognition and emotion – How accurate perception of own biases relates to positive feelings and hedonic capacity

Metacognition refers to awareness of one’s own cognitive processes, including examining own biases and decision making. Metacognitive self (MCS), defined as accuracy in perception of own biases, is associated with pro-health behaviors and desire for feedback, including negative information.Two studies investigated MCS in relation to emotion and hedonic capacity. First, in a longitudinal study of college students, MCS measure was stable over time, and correlated with feelings of love and joy. In the second study, MCS, mood, and hedonic capacity ratings were collected prior to evaluating stimuli for pleasure from engagement during an fMRI. Higher MCS was associated with greater hedonic capacity and increased signal in cortical areas involved in self-reflection and decision making.Our findings implicate self-awareness of biases as a cognitive process supporting positive emotional state and hedonic capacity. Future studies should explore how MCS relates to changes in mood and vulnerability to mood disorders.     

Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis function and hedonic behavior in adult male and female rats prenatally stressed by maternal food restriction

Neuroendocrine activation during stress is affected by many factors contributing to the variability of the stress response. The present study was aimed at evaluating long-term changes in hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis function and in hedonic behavior in adult offspring prenatally stressed by maternal food restriction, with attention on possible gender differences. Adult offspring were blood sampled via a tail artery cannula. Prenatally stressed females had significantly higher adrenal weights compared to males. Plasma ACTH levels, which rose in response to acute stress induced by handling, were significantly higher in females compared to those in males. A similar pattern was found in plasma corticosterone. The rise in ACTH levels was more pronounced in prenatally stressed rats though the rise in corticosterone failed to be modified. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and proopiomelanocortin mRNA levels in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and anterior pituitary, respectively, were found to be unchanged. The present experiments failed to reveal a decrease in hedonic behavior in prenatally stressed rats. In contrast, in male offspring a tendency to a higher sucrose preference was observed. These data together with observed changes in hormone and CRH mRNA levels indicate that the gestational stress used did not result in a depression-like state in adult offspring.     

Excitation and hedonic valence in the effect of erotica on motivated Intermale aggression

The excitatory potential (low, high), the hedonic valence (negative, positive), and the type of content (erotic, non-erotic) of visual stimuli were varied in a factorial design. Male subjects were provoked by a same-sex peer, exposed to communication or, in a no-exposure control, made to wait for a period of time equal to that of communication exposure, and then provided with an opportunity to retaliate against their annoyer. High excitatory potential and negative hedonic valence were found to combine additively in a facilitative effect on retaliatory aggression. No appreciable differences were found in the effect of excitationally and hedonically matched erotica and non-erotica. Exposure to either arousing and displeasing erotica or non-erotica produced levels of aggression significantly above the level associated with the no-exposure control. Exposure to comparatively non-arousing and pleasing erotica or non-erotica failed to reduce aggression, however. The findings were considered to support a model that projects the effect of erotica on retaliatory aggression as a joint function of their excitatory potential and their hedonic valence.     

The effect of manipulating CS hedonic value on the magnitude of a conditioned taste aversion

This study was designed to assess how the hedonic value of a conditioned stimulus (CS) might mediate the strength of a conditioned taste aversion (CTA). Results indicated that as the hedonic value of the CS increased, the severity of the aversion associated with the CS attenuated.     

The effect of manipulating CS hedonic value on the magnitude of a conditioned taste aversion

This study was designed to assess how the hedonic value of a conditioned stimulus (CS) might mediate the strength of a conditioned taste aversion (CTA). Results indicated that as the hedonic value of the CS increased, the severity of the aversion associated with the CS attenuated.     

Arousal,positive and negative affect,and preference for Renaissance and 20th-century paintings

Treatments expected to raise the level of arousal and induce different degrees of positive and negative affect were paired on some trials with Renaissance or 20th-century paintings, whereas no paintings were shown on other trials. The design was within-subjects (24 females); the dependent measures were skin conductance (SC) and the preference for paintings. All treatments, including the paintings/no paintings factor, raised SC over the base-line, and the pattern was essentially additive. The perceived failure to attain control over aversive auditory stimulation (resulting in negative affect) raised SC to a higher level than did the unavoidable aversive stimulation (minimal affect) or monetary gains (positive affect). Paintings paired with affect (positiveor negative) were rated as more pleasing than were those paired with no affect. The Renaissance works were preferred to the 20th-century works when negative affect was induced, whereas the opposite was true in the case of positive affect. The collative-motivation model could not account for the fact that pleasingness of paintings was not related to SC by an inverted-U function. The contiguity model could not explain the considerable rated pleasingness of paintings paired with negative affect. In contrast, there was considerable support for a more comprehensive hypothesis (distraction/soothingness) based on attentional and affective considerations, and the differential cognitive labeling of fluctuations of arousal.This research was supported by Grant GS-42802 from the National Science Foundation to VJK. Some of the findings were presented at the 6th International Colloquium of Empirical Aesthetics, and the 21st International Congress of Psychology, both held during July 1976 in Paris, France.     

享乐适应理论的发展及应用

随着全民关注幸福的时代到来, 享乐适应理论作为研究幸福的钥匙, 引起了多学科的广泛关注。文章首先从享乐适应的内涵、与幸福感的关系、发生机制、减缓方式出发进行文献梳理与评述, 接着重点探讨享乐适应理论在消费行为学、经济学、组织行为学等领域的应用研究, 以期为个体提升幸福感及企业通过提升消费者与员工的幸福感来强化他们对企业的正面认知提供帮助。未来应不断扩展享乐适应理论的应用范围, 重点关注各领域中变动的主体及形式对享乐适应的影响。