自由目标效应与样例效应对学生写作成绩影响

“自由目标效应”和“样例效应”是认知负荷理论为解决学习者的认知资源限制而提出的两个重要的教学设计原则。通过两个实验,研究“自由目标效应”和“样例效应”对不同写作水平学生写作成绩的影响。被试为406名初中一年级学生。结果表明,“自由目标效应”和“样例效应”受学生写作水平的影响。“自由目标效应”对高水平写作者有促进作用,但会降低低水平写作者的成绩;“样例效应”对低水平写作者有促进作用,但对高水平写作者的写作成绩无显著影响。     

小学3-6年级学生解决比较问题的研究

本研究对465名小学3—6年级学生解决不同类型的比较问题进行了研究。结果表明：(1)小学生解决比较问题的成绩受问题类型及年级的交互影响。儿童在一致算术问题上的成绩都很好,且显著优于不一致算术问题。在不一致算术问题、一致代数问题及不一致代数问题上,存在年级差异。5、6年级学生优于4年级学生。(2)小学生在算术问题上的通过率高于代数问题,5、6年级学生的通过率高于3、4年级。除一致算术问题外,其它类型比较问题的通过率较低。(3)小学生解决比较问题的成绩无性别差异。     

Promoting Creativity at Work: The Role of Problem‐Solving Demand

We propose that problem‐solving demand (PSD) is an important job attribute for employees' creative performance. Applying job design theory, we examined the relationship between PSD and employee creativity. The theorised model was tested with data obtained from a sample of 270 employees and their supervisors from three Chinese organisations. Regression results revealed that PSD was positively related to creativity, and this relationship was mediated by creative self‐efficacy. Additionally, intrinsic motivation moderated the relationship between PSD and creative self‐efficacy such that the relationship was stronger for individuals with high rather than low intrinsic motivation. We discuss our findings, implications for practice, and future research.     

Defining and Assessing Problem‐Solving Style: Design and Development of a New Tool

VIEW: An Assessment of Problem Solving Style (Selby, Treffinger, & Isaksen, 2002) is a new instrument for assessing problem‐solving style, for use with individuals from ages 12 through adult. It measures three dimensions of style relating to creative problem solving and change management. In this article, we discuss the construction of the instrument, the initial evidence supporting the instrument's reliability and validity, and a very brief overview of the instrument's foundations. Our reliability data involve both stability and internal consistency. We report evidence for the criterion‐related validity, based on correlational studies with relevant measures of learning style, cognitive style, and psychological type. We also conducted principal components factor analyses that support our three‐factor structure. Researchers and practitioners studying and applying Creative Problem Solving and change management methods can use VIEW in several ways. Finally, we identify several research directions that will contribute to the refinement and development of the instrument as well as to a better understanding of the “problem‐solving style” construct.     

Acquiring an understanding of design: evidence from children's insight problem solving

The human ability to make tools and use them to solve problems may not be zoologically unique, but it is certainly extraordinary. Yet little is known about the conceptual machinery that makes humans so competent at making and using tools. Do adults and children have concepts specialized for understanding human-made artifacts? If so, are these concepts deployed in attempts to solve novel problems? Here we present new data, derived from problem-solving experiments, which support the following. (i) The structure of the child's concept of artifact function changes profoundly between ages 5 and 7. At age 5, the child's conceptual machinery defines the function of an artifact as any goal a user might have; by age 7, its function is defined by the artifact's typical or intended use. (ii) This conceptual shift has a striking effect on problem-solving performance, i.e. the child's concept of artifact function appears to be deployed in problem solving. (iii) This effect on problem solving is not caused by differences in the amount of knowledge that children have about the typical use of a particular tool; it is mediated by the structure of the child's artifact concept (which organizes and deploys the child's knowledge). In two studies, children between 5 and 7 years of age were matched for their knowledge of what a particular artifact "is for", and then given a problem that can only be solved if that tool is used for an atypical purpose. All children performed well in a baseline condition. But when they were primed by a demonstration of the artifact's typical function, 5-year-old children solved the problem much faster than 6-7-year-old children. Because all children knew what the tools were for, differences in knowledge alone cannot explain the results. We argue that the older children were slower to solve the problem when the typical function was primed because (i) their artifact concept plays a role in problem solving, and (ii) intended purpose is central to their concept of artifact function, but not to that of the younger children.     

中学生问题解决策略的基本特征研究

实验通过人—机界面,对中学生解决几何问题策略的基本特征进行探讨。对学习成绩优、差学生,在解决问题的程序上和解决问题结果的正确与错误上的差异比较后显示：学习成绩优、差学生在解决问题的程序上,尤其在问题解决的思考推理方向上没有类似专家和新手之间的显著差异;学习成绩的优、差对解决问题结果的正确与错误上具有直接的影响;问题解决规则的选择对问题解决过程具有间接影响;对问题解决规则的掌握对问题解决的结果具有重要影响。     

问题解决中图式与策略的关系:来自表征复杂性模型的说明

采用口语报告法收集了26名小学三年级儿童解决两道复杂的算术应用题时的口语报告和作业资料,探讨了问题解决中图式与策略的关系。结果发现,对二者关系的解释要以问题表征复杂性为中介：如果被试的关系图式水平较高,表征复杂性(特别是表征深度)也会较大,相应会选择领域专门性更强的快捷策略;如果缺乏必需的关系图式。表征深度就降低,甚至不能正确表征问题,这时只好使用常规策略甚至错误策略。这个结论适用于有多种表征和解题方式的问题中。     

The Effect Of Religiousness On Marital Satisfaction: Testing The Mediator Role Of Marital Problem Solving Between Religiousness And Marital Satisfaction Relationship

This study was focused on revealing the effects of religiousness on marital satisfaction, and also to test the mediator role of perceived marital problem solving between religiousness and marital satisfaction relationship in a Turkish sample. Subjects were 92 married couples, or a total of 184 participants. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that after controlling for the variance accounted for by the control variables, namely duration of marriage, marital style, educational level, hopelessness, and submissive acts; religiousness had a major effect on marital satisfaction, but a mediator role of problem solving was not observed.     

Development of social problem‐solving strategies and changes in aggressive behavior: A 7‐year follow‐up from childhood to late adolescence

The aim of this study was to predict a stability of aggressive behavior on the basis of social problem‐solving strategies. Subjects were a total of 120 children, but complete follow‐up data were available only in 47 cases. Their aggressive behaviors were peer rated, and problem‐solving strategies were assessed in childhood subjects being 10 years on average, and 7 years later. Association between a development of social strategies and changes in aggressive behavior was studied with personality‐oriented pattern analyses. The main finding was that a development of strategies predicted a stability or changes of aggressive behavior very well. Aggressive strategies, both in childhood and in adolescence, as well as a lack of constructive alternatives characterized permanently aggressive subjects. Turning from nonaggressive to aggressive behavior was also explained by aggressive problem‐solving strategies, while a positive development, i.e., turning from childhood aggressive to adolescent nonaggressive behavior, was possible only if a person had never used aggressive strategies. Agreement between behavior and strategies was higher among girls. The findings supported a claim that intervention of aggressive behavior may be possible by modifying social strategies. Aggr. Behav. 25:269–279, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Deconstructing the tower: Parameters and predictors of problem difficulty on the Tower of London task

The Tower of London (TOL) task has been widely used in both clinical and research realms. In the current study, 104 healthy participants attempted all possible moderate- to high-difficulty TOL problems in order to determine: (1) optimal measures of problem solving performance, (2) problem characteristics, other than the minimum moves necessary to solve the problem, that determine participants’ difficulty in solving problems successfully, quickly, and efficiently, and (3) effects of increased task experience on which problem characteristics determine problem difficulty. A factor analysis of six performance measures found that, regardless of task experience, problem difficulty could be captured well either by a single factor corresponding to general quality of solution or possibly by three subordinate factors corresponding to solution efficiency, solution speed, and initial planning speed. Regression analyses predicting these performance factors revealed that in addition to a problem’s minimum moves three problem parameters were critical in determining the problem difficulty: goal position hierarchy, start position hierarchy, and number of solution paths available. The relative contributions of each of the characteristics strongly depended on which performance factor defined performance. We conclude that TOL problem performance is multifaceted, and that classifying problem difficulty using only the minimum moves necessary to solve the problem is inadequate.     

小学生数学应用题解决的认知机制研究

研究的目的是探讨影响小学生应用题解决的认知因素及其作用机制。采用自编的应用题解决问卷对183名小学生进行了测量和统计分析。结果表明：情境理解、问题表征、问题归类、解题计划和自我评价是影响小学生应用题解决的主要认知因素。其中,情境理解首先影响问题表征、问题归类、解题计划和自我评价,后四个因素又进一步影响解题成绩。     

Fast mapping of multiple words: Insights into when “the information provided” does and does not equal “the information perceived”

A candidate process for explaining the rapid vocabulary acquisition during the preschool years is “fast mapping,” children's ability to sketch partial maps of a word's meaning after brief exposure. The present study examines this process for learning multiple words, testing the hypothesis that children's attention to the information critical for quickly mapping multiple words onto their referents depends on the alternatives available when the words are introduced. Fifty-eight 40-month-old children participated in one of two conditions. In both conditions, each trial for novel Word #1 presented a novel object and three familiar ones. The conditions differed in the object choices presented when novel Word #2 was introduced. Although the same information was available to children in both conditions, younger children showed significantly better learning of the new words in the successive condition than in the concurrent condition. Implications of this for age-related differences and for teaching strategies are discussed.     

归类不确定时样例代表性对特征归纳预测的影响研究

作者用以大学生被试的一个实验考察归类不确定情景下样例的代表典型性对特征归纳预测的可能影响。实验结果表明,预测特征相对于目标特征的综合条件概率影响特征归纳预测,而样例的代表典型性并不影响特征归纳预测,没有出现样例的代表典型性效应。预测特征综合条件概率策略能预测解释这种结果。     

Testing the Triple‐Match Principle in the Technology Sector: A Two‐Wave Longitudinal Panel Study

The present study investigates the issue of match between job demands and job resources in the prediction of changes in job‐related well‐being outcomes as outlined by the Demand‐Induced Strain Compensation (DISC) model. Job demands, resources, and well‐being outcomes are considered to be multidimensional constructs comprising physical, cognitive, and/or emotional components. The Triple‐Match Principle (TMP) proposes that the strongest, interactive relationships between job demands and resources are observed when demands, resources, and outcomes are based on identical dimensions. This principle was tested using a two‐wave longitudinal panel study among 720 Belgian employees in the technology sector. Analyses were conducted with cross‐lagged structural equation modeling, and results tend to confirm the matching hypothesis. Specifically, the likelihood of finding valid interaction effects was nearly linearly related to the degree of match between demands, resources, and outcomes. Generalisability of the TMP in the technology sector was shown. Practically, findings indicate that enhancing specific, matching, job resources enables employees to deal with corresponding high job demands to improve employee well‐being.     

Need for Cognition and Cognitive Performance From a Cross-Cultural Perspective: Examples of Academic Success and Solving Anagrams

The cross-cultural validity of the Need for Cognition Scale and its relationship with cognitive performance were investigated in two studies. In the first study, the relationships between the scale and university entrance scores, course grades, study skills, and social desirability were examined. Using the short form of the Turkish version of the Need for Cognition Scale (S. Gülgöz & C. J. Sadowski, 1995) no correlation with academic performance was found but there was significant correlation with a study skills scale and a social desirability scale created for this study. When regression analysis was used to predict grade point average, the Need for Cognition Scale was a significant predictor. In the second study, participants low or high in need for cognition solved multiple-solution anagrams. The instructions preceding the task set the participants' expectations regarding task difficulty. An interaction between expectation and need for cognition indicated that participants with low need for cognition performed worse when they expected difficult problems. Results of the two studies showed that need for cognition has cross-cultural validity and that its effect on cognitive performance was mediated by other variables.     

Beyond objectivity: The performance impact of the perceived ability to learn and solve problems

The purpose of this research was to develop and provide initial validation evidence for the performance impact of a measure of an individual's perceived ability to learn and solve problems (PALS). Building on the self-efficacy literature and the importance of learning and problem solving, the fundamental premise of this research was that PALS would significantly explain employee performance. In addition to demonstrating that PALS represented a distinct construct, PALS was a significant predictor of performance for managerial and entry-level employees in two different organizational contexts. Moreover, PALS explained additional variance in performance beyond general mental ability, personality, and similar constructs related to learning and problem solving.     

Construct and Criterion‐Related Validation of a Measure of Emotional Reasoning Skills: A two‐study investigation

In a two‐study investigation, the construct and criterion‐related validities of the Test of Emotional Intelligence, an ability‐based measure of emotional reasoning skills, were examined. In Study 1, as hypothesized, emotional reasoning skills were related to emotion recognition ability (i.e., as measured by Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy), emotional empathy, and three measures of successful social functioning (i.e., social astuteness, interpersonal influence, and apparent sincerity) assessed by peers, after controlling for personality and occupational environment characteristics. In Study 2, results from a predictive validation study demonstrated that Emotional Intelligence explained additional variance in overall job performance ratings beyond general mental ability and personality traits. Contributions and implications of this research investigation, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.     

Does playing blindfold chess reduce the quality of game: comments on chabris and hearst (2003)

Blindfold chess is a special type of chess game where both the board and pieces are not visible to its players. This paper aims to determine whether the quality of the game played blindfolded is lower than when played under normal conditions. The best chess program was used to analyze games played by the world's top Grandmasters under both conditions. We have analyzed the Monaco 1993–1998 data set introduced by Chabris and Hearst (2003) . The results showed that although a larger number of mistakes occurred while playing blindfolded, no significant statistical difference between the rapid and blindfold games has been found. Nevertheless, by applying the same methodology to the Monaco 2002–2007 data set a substantial difference between the blindfold and the rapid chess game was noticed. In this paper, we have addressed the possible improvement of the chess game quality and the advances in chess programs that may be responsible for detecting more blunders.     

Why good thoughts block better ones: the mechanism of the pernicious Einstellung (set) effect

The Einstellung (set) effect occurs when the first idea that comes to mind, triggered by familiar features of a problem, prevents a better solution being found. It has been shown to affect both people facing novel problems and experts within their field of expertise. We show that it works by influencing mechanisms that determine what information is attended to. Having found one solution, expert chess players reported that they were looking for a better one. But their eye movements showed that they continued to look at features of the problem related to the solution they had already thought of. The mechanism which allows the first schema activated by familiar aspects of a problem to control the subsequent direction of attention may contribute to a wide range of biases both in everyday and expert thought - from confirmation bias in hypothesis testing to the tendency of scientists to ignore results that do not fit their favoured theories.