Cognitive differentiation as a function of information type and its relation to career choice

Although providing occupational information is a common vocational counseling practice, recent research has raised questions about the utility of such information. Cognitive differentiation (the ability to differentiate among job titles on 12 constructs) has been shown to be positively related to an “appropriate” career choice. Differentiation, however, appears to decrease as a function of traditional types of occupational information (e.g., Occupational Outlook Handbook, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 1980). The present study investigated the hypothesis that information related to Holland personality characteristics of persons in various occupations would increase subjects' ability to differentiate among those job titles. One hundred fifty undeclared-major freshman undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of three condition groups: objective information, personality information, no information. All subjects were administered the Career Decision Scale and Cognitive Differentiation Grid. Results indicated that subjects receiving personality information exhibited a significantly greater degree of differentiation among careers than subjects receiving objective information. These results confirm the major hypothesis of the study and suggest that the provision of personality information may be more useful in promoting career choice than the types of information traditionally provided.     

Examining career persistence and career change intent using the career attitudes and strategies inventory

This is the first study to examine Holland and Gottfredson’s [Holland, J. L., & Gottfredson, G. D. (1994). Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory: An inventory for understanding adult careers. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.] assertion that the Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory (CASI) is a useful instrument for differentiating career persisters and career changers. Based on Holland’s (1996; Holland and Gottfredson) [Holland, J. L. (1996). Exploring careers with a typology: What we have learned and some new directions. American Psychologist, 51, 397-406.] expectations and empirical evidence it was hypothesized that persisters (expressed intent to remain in current career) would score higher than changers (expressed intent to change career) on the Job Satisfaction, Work Involvement, Skill Development, and Geographical Barriers scales comprising the CASI. Conversely, it was hypothesized that changers would score higher than persisters on the CASI scales measuring Dominant Style, Career Worries, Interpersonal Abuse, Family Commitment, and Risk-Taking Style. To test these hypotheses, 249 career persisters and 200 career changers completed the CASI. Results indicated that changers were more likely to take risks and were more motivated towards skill development, while persisters were more satisfied in their jobs and reported greater career concerns.     

A study of career patterns of women college graduates

The employment and educational histories of 498 women college graduates of 1968 were investigated to assess the women's career progress in the 10 years since college. The women were classified in a proposed seven-category system of career patterns adapted from those of D. G. Zytowski (Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1969, 47, 660–664) and K. P. Wolfson (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1976, 23,(2), 119–125). The system established categories for pioneer (nontraditional) as well as traditional women's occupations at varying levels of both span (length) and degree of participation in paid employment. The seven resulting career pattern groups were compared on personal and career-relevant variables. The findings indicated that a majority of the women graduates have worked continuously outside the home since 1968, and many have entered pioneer occupations. Only 1.4% of the present sample of women were full-time homemakers throughout the 10-year period. On the other hand, 28.5% of the women in the sample were currently employed in pioneer occupations. A majority of the women (79%) have combined both careers and homemaking. Women in traditionally female careers, as compared with pioneer women, were less likely to change careers across the 10-year period, and were more likely to move in a horizontal or downward career direction. Pioneer women were more likely than traditionals to move from lower-to higher-level careers. The findings support the use of the adapted classification system in future studies and also provide data for use with women who are now planning for future careers and lifestyles.     

Career metaphors and their application in theory and counseling practice

This article, first given as an address to the January 2002 National Consultation on Career Development, Ottawa, Ontario, draws attention to the inevitability of metaphor in human thought, discourse, and theory, including that concerning careers. The article (a) explores the benefits and the dangers of metaphorical thinking and advocates the use of “multiple metaphor” as a means of understanding careers; (b) looks particularly at metaphors in the context of new, more flexible careers; (c) introduces 10 archetypal career metaphors; and (d) considers how career counseling practice can be assisted through the facilitation of metaphorical thinking.     

Effects of educational and career exploration system on vocational maturity

An experimental group of 792 tenth graders spent from 1 to 17 hr (average 3 hr) on ECES, a computer-based educational and occupational exploration system.Gains on a test of vocational maturity administered at the beginning and end of the school year were compared with a control group of 1453 tenth graders, matched on relevant variables. ECES users showed larger gains than nonusers in (1) degree of planfulness and (2) knowledge and use of resources for career exploration, as measured by the Career Development Inventory, not in information about education, occupations and career decision making. Gains were related to amount of time spent on ECES but male-female differences were not exhibited.     

An evaluation of a careers programme for Australian Country High School Students

Country high school students in Australia have very limited opportunities to understand the world of work. The Career Exploration and Recreation Programme aims to broaden such students' appreciation of occupations and to assist them in career choice. The programme is outlined. An evaluation revealed that participants considered favourably most aspects of the programme. Some suggested improvements are however outlined which may be of relevance to the initiation or development of other careers programmes.     

Developmental trajectories and reciprocal associations between career adaptability and vocational identity: A three-wave longitudinal study with adolescents

The purpose of this longitudinal study was two-fold. First, we investigated patterns of stability and change in career adaptability and vocational identity in adolescents. Second, we examined reciprocal associations between career adaptability and vocational identity. In addressing both research aims we tested the moderating effects of gender, school-type, and age. Participants were 1151 (58.7% female) adolescents. They filled in measures that appraised career adapt-abilities and vocational identity processes three times during a school year. Latent growth curve analyses highlighted slight longitudinal decreases in career concern, control, and confidence especially in boys, vocational school students, and middle-to-late adolescents. Also, over time boys and students attending vocational schools reported less in-depth occupational exploration, less identification with present vocational commitments, and more flexibility and self-doubt about their careers. Findings of cross-lagged path analyses highlighted reciprocal associations between career adaptability and vocational identity. Career adaptability positively predicted adolescents' ways of dealing with vocational exploration and commitment. Vocational commitment and reconsideration of commitment predicted career adapt-abilities in time. These results indicate that career adaptability and vocational identity are dynamic and interrelated dimensions of adolescent career development. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Dimensions of adolescent career development: A multi-instrument analysis

Dimensions of adolescent career development were assessed by several well-established, objectively scored instruments. Attention was given to the correlations between measures of academic achievement and career development. Correlations among 19 scales administered to 237 eleventh graders revealed three clusters of converging scale pairs, labeled “Certainty,” “Decision-Making,” and “Activity.” Four orthogonal factors were identified and given the following heuristic labels: “Cognitive Resources for Decision-Making,” “Decision-Making Style,” “Systematic Involvement in Career Decision-Making,” and “Decision-Making Stage/Certainty.” Results are discussed in relation to practical problems of instrument selection and score interpretation and in the context of theories of adolescent career development.     

Managerial aspirations of high school seniors: A comparison of males and females

Empirical research in the past has indicated that young people are generally not oriented toward managerial careers and that females are less so than are males. However, the greater career orientation of today's students, recent changes in societal values, persistent attempts by women to obtain equality, and federal legislation expressly forbidding discrimination may have changed this situation by the late 1970s. A survey of 2112 high school seniors in the state of Alabama was conducted to investigate these issues. Results indicate that few high school seniors aspire to management careers and that sex continues to be a major discriminator. The “male managerial model” continues to be reinforced by the values and attitudes of society as reflected in its young people.     

Managerial career patterns: A review of the empirical evidence

Despite the ubiquitous presence of the term “career patterns” in the discourse about careers, the existing empirical evidence on (managerial) career patterns is rather limited. From this literature review of 33 published empirical studies of managerial and similar professional career patterns found in electronic bibliographic databases, it is clear that upward mobility is still the norm, even when contrasting traditional to “new” careers. We argue that the nature and number of unique career patterns identified is strongly influenced by where and when the data were collected (i.e. empirical access), and how career patterns are measured. Our review further shows organizations clearly still act as containing social structures for the patterning of managerial careers, and that contemporary managerial careers, despite some evidence of increasing inter-organizational mobility, have new boundaries which induce linearity. We provide insights for further conceptualization of managerial career patterns and for advancing methodological approaches, including the use of optimal matching analysis and narratives. By expanding the scope of career pattern dimensions beyond time and direction, this review provides ground for further research on managerial career patterns.     

Career change and congruence of personality type: An examination of DOT-derived work environment designations

Holland's theory of congruence of work environments was examined by analyzing the career redirection of 62 men of managerial and professional level who changed occupations between the ages of 33 and 54. Three-letter personality codes for each subject were obtained by administering the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. Dictionary of Occupational Titles codes for first and second occupation were obtained and then translated into Holland codes. These were compared to the personality code for each man to determine whether the first or second job was more congruent. It was found that 26 men changed to careers more congruent with their personality, 25 to careers less congruent, and 11 made no change. The results of the study do not lend support to Holland's theory, probably because of the imprecision of DOT categories for research purposes. The need for a more reliable means for coding work environments is discussed.     

Career education and career maturity

The relationships between career maturity and the career curriculum practices and policies of 38 Melbourne metropolitan secondary schools were investigated in this study. An Australian adaption of the Career Development Inventory was used as the measure of career maturity of random samples of year 9 and year 11 students. Career curriculum practices were ascertained via questionnaires. Questionnaires were completed by the principal, career teacher, and three subject teachers in each of the schools in the study. The questionnaires yielded five factors, one associated with congruence to Super's theory and four assocated with innovation/implementation factors. The results of the study supported the view that schools with career education programs achieved higher gains in the career maturity of their students between years 9 and 11 than schools with no career education programs. The findings also showed a strong relationship between the type of program offered, the support of the school for that program, and the gains in career maturity of the students between years 9 and 11.     

职业认知、社会支持对农民择业倾向的影响

以社会认知职业理论（SCCT）为框架,建立了职业认知（职业自我效能、职业结果预期）和社会支持（积极支持和消极支持）对农民职业兴趣和择业倾向影响的假设模型。在深度访谈和对419名农民试测的基础上,编制了基于霍兰德RIASEC职业分类的测量问卷。采用结构方程技术对628名农民的正式测试结果进行测量模型和结构模型的建构与检验。研究结果验证了SCCT有关职业兴趣和职业选择的核心假设。在环境变量方面,社会支持主要通过职业自我效能对农民的择业倾向产生间接的影响,其中E型和C型的自我效能在积极支持和择业倾向间起完全中介的作用,C型的自我效能在消极支持和择业倾向间起部分中介的作用。这些结果为改善农民就业状态的途径提供了一定的参考,也为SCCT的中国化研究和跨文化整合提供了一些实证依据     

Exploring the links between gender,dwelling, and career orientations of African emerging adults

The study explored the socio-ecological (i.e. gender and geographical location) influences on the career orientations of emerging adults. The participants comprised a convenience sample of 159 black African South African university students (57% rural, 43% urban; 63% females, 37% males; mean age = 19.0, SD = 2.24). The emerging adults completed a career orientations inventory and also self-reported their demographics. We applied hierarchical regression analysis to predict the emerging adults’ career orientations from their gender and place of dwelling (geographical location) controlling for age. Results indicate that gender predicts interest in entrepreneurial creativity orientations for males rather than for females, and interest in service-oriented occupations for females compared to males. Geographical location predicted interest in entrepreneurial, general management, and service type of occupations for those from the rural rather than urban areas. Urban location predicted interest in technical and functional careers anchors. Career orientations among South African emerging adults appeared to be gendered and tied to place of geographical origin, suggesting social context socialisation influences.     

Mid-career change in academia: The decision to become an administrator

This study explored the reasons why professors would leave their teaching/ research occupations to begin new careers as administrators. Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy theory of occupational preference and choice was used as a framework to examine mid-career change among professors and department chairmen at a major university. Data showed that professors' intentions to change careers and become administrators could be explained by the theory. Analyses of job characteristics demonstrated that professors who want a mid-career change are primarily attracted by the power and formal authority vested in the administrative position, while professors who prefer to remain in their career paths do so because of the autonomy it offers.     

Crisis, taboos and careers guidance

The relevance of the idea of 'crisis' for careers and careers guidance is examined, together with some of the critical responses that have been made to recent crises. It is argued that careers guidance generally responds to such challenges by seeing them as external problems rather than as changes which may alter its very assumptions and methods. Two particular taboos are noted in this context concerning the value of work and of working for an organisation. The questioning of these taboos leads to four models of alternative careers: the Uncareer, the Guerilla Career, the Cop-Out Career, and the Non-Career. These forms of career raise the broader issues of order and disorder within careers, with their associated implications for careers guidance.     

Relationship of age,sex, and educational groups to career decisiveness

Five educational groups, composed of a total of 369 students, ranging from high school freshmen to college juniors, were administered the Career Decision Questionnaire, a scale designed to measure antecedents of educational-vocational indecision. It was determined that age was an extremely important factor in career decidedness, sex was not an important variable in determining decidedness, and certain educational groups stood out as significant factors associated with level of career decisiveness. Students enrolled in career orientation classes were clearly more undecided than students enrolled in 12th-grade vocational classes, college preprofessional classes, and more general groups of high school students. Interaction among variables and the measurement of career decidedness are discussed, with applications for counseling considered.     

Behaviors associated with “good” and “poor” outcomes in a simulated career decision

What career decision-making procedures enable people to make decisions that yield consequences congruent with their own values? The 40 “best” (most congruent) and 40 “worst” decision makers on the Career Decision Simulation were compared in a sample of 148 community college students. No significant differences appeared in the amount of double checking, number of occupations and information sources checked, amount of information collected, decision time required, and the proportion of information sought about high values. The “best” decision makers, however, were significantly more persistent in immediately seeking more information about an occupation that seemed to match one of their most important personal work values. Following a values-guided search appears more effective than simply searching exhaustively.