An application of Strong's validity criteria to basic interest scales

E. K. Strong, Jr.'s (Vocational interests of men and women, Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1943) four propositions for interest-inventory validity andJ. L. Holland's (Making vocational choices: A theory of careers, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973) hexagonal classification system were synthesized in order to adapt a traditional procedure for determining the construct validity of occupational interest scales to the validation of basic interest scales. The procedure was tested using a sample of 4035 males and 3671 females whose interest inventory results as high school students and whose majors as college seniors could be assigned Holland codes. Results of the study indicate that this procedure can be used to assess the construct validity of inventories using basic interest scales.     

Do birds of a feather flock together? A test of the similarities within and the differences between five occupations

Two sets of samples of 40 women from each of five different occupations were subjected to J. H. Ward's (Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1963, 58, 236–244) hierarchical cluster analysis, using an index of similarity from Kuder, 1977, Kuder, 1980, 40, 1–8). The five-group solution in neither case adequately recaptured the occupational membership of the original groups. This finding was interpreted to mean that there may be important differences in the interests of person in the same occupation, which in turn has implications for occupational scaling on interest inventories and theories of career development and counseling.     

The effects of setting similarity on children's learning of the transverse patterning problem

A group of 15 fourth-graders were given training on the transverse patterning problem, a task consisting of three different geometric forms presented in pairs. Three other groups of 15 fourth-graders each received training on problems containing the same geometric forms, along with either one (color or size) or two (color and size) additional nonspatial dimensions varying among the settings comprising the different cue-cue patterns. Contrary to a prediction derived from Croll's (1967) extension of Spiker's (1963) theory of discrimination learning, none of the Ss solved the basic transverse patterning problem, nor was there any improvement in performance on this problem after 90 trials. Consistent with predictions derived from Spiker's theory, it was found that the addition of one nonspatial dimersion resulted in solution, and that the greater the number of nonspatial dimensions present, the better the learning.     

Black women in the emerging services economy

In the current debate about low-wage work and poverty, little attention has been paid to causes of basic structural change in the economy with the shift from a manufacturing to a services economy. Black women, a key segment of the low-wage work force, have gained and lost in this change. As the lowest paid, lowest status work force in the economy, black women benefited by a move out of domestic services employment where they had been restricted for more than a century. But static wages, high rates of part-time work, and a continuing overconcentration in new but marginal services job systems have created a crisis for personal income and black family support. The growing feminization of poverty is the product of growth of a subculture of low-wage work. Only through serious attention to the use of collective bargaining and equal opportunity regulation on behalf of this work force are these trends likely to be reversed in the 1990s.Support for this research was provided by grants from the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, the William Monroe Trotter Institute, The Ford Foundation, and the Woman's Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor.     

Selective attention and the processing of integral and nonintegral dimensions: A developmental study

In two experiments, first- and fourth-grade subjects (age 6 and 9 years) performed a speeded card-sorting task with either integral or nonintegral dimensions. The dimensions were so arranged that subjects sorted on three types of task: (1) single dimension, (2) correlated dimensions, and (3) orthogonal dimensions. Results of the first experiment indicate that both first- and fourth-grade subjects sorted integral dimensions in a manner not qualitatively different from that of the adult (Garner & Felfoldy, Cognitive Psychology, 1970, 1, 225–241). In comparison with single-dimension tasks, performance was facilitated on the correlated-dimensions tasks and interference was observed on the orthogonal-dimensions tasks. Performances with nonintegral dimensions revealed an age-related processing difference. Fourth graders sorted nonintegral dimensions like the adult; no differences in performance were observed between the tasks. In contrast, first-graders sorted nonintegral dimensions as if they were integral. Interference was consistently observed on orthogonal-dimensions tasks. On correlated-dimensions tasks, interference was observed on easy tasks and redundancy facilitated difficult tasks. In the second experiment, first graders showed consistent facilitation on the correlated-dimensions task; all other results were indentical to those of Experiment I. The results were interpreted as consistent with perceptual learning theory (Gibson, Principles of perceptual learning and development. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969).     

Validity of sex-balanced interest inventory scales

The purpose of this study was to examine the relative effectiveness of sex-balanced and sex-restrictive raw score interest scales in discriminating among vocational preference groups. Analyses were conducted separately for 502 males in six vocational preference groups and 878 females in five vocational preference groups. The degree and nature of the discrimination among groups were highly similar for the two types of scales for both males and females. Centour scores derived from sex-balanced and sex-restrictive raw scores resulted in essentially the same percentages of correct classifications of group membership. The results of this study suggest that the large sex differences traditionally found in interest inventory items may not be a necessary concomitant of validity. Hence, interest inventory reports that reflect these differences may unnecessarily restrict the career suggestions they provide to women and men.     

The effect of pretraining and feedback on the reasoning of young children

Three experiments are reported in which kindergarten and first-grade children were given one-trial multidimensional reasoning tasks that were modifications of those used by T. C. Toppino (1980, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 30, 496–512). In the first two experiments, the nature of the stimulus compounds (partitioned or unitary) was varied in a series of tasks of increasing complexity. First-grade children (Experiment 1) and kindergarten children (Experiment 2) performed extremely well on all of the tasks presented. Experiment 3 was designed to identify factors that contribute to these high levels of performance, relative to those obtained under the conditions used by Toppino (1980). The results indicated that a combination of feedback information and preliminary experience with simple forms of the tasks are sufficient to produce the high performance levels, and that the verbal labeling of stimulus components is not an essential constituent of the training.     

A study of career patterns of women college graduates

The employment and educational histories of 498 women college graduates of 1968 were investigated to assess the women's career progress in the 10 years since college. The women were classified in a proposed seven-category system of career patterns adapted from those of D. G. Zytowski (Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1969, 47, 660–664) and K. P. Wolfson (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1976, 23,(2), 119–125). The system established categories for pioneer (nontraditional) as well as traditional women's occupations at varying levels of both span (length) and degree of participation in paid employment. The seven resulting career pattern groups were compared on personal and career-relevant variables. The findings indicated that a majority of the women graduates have worked continuously outside the home since 1968, and many have entered pioneer occupations. Only 1.4% of the present sample of women were full-time homemakers throughout the 10-year period. On the other hand, 28.5% of the women in the sample were currently employed in pioneer occupations. A majority of the women (79%) have combined both careers and homemaking. Women in traditionally female careers, as compared with pioneer women, were less likely to change careers across the 10-year period, and were more likely to move in a horizontal or downward career direction. Pioneer women were more likely than traditionals to move from lower-to higher-level careers. The findings support the use of the adapted classification system in future studies and also provide data for use with women who are now planning for future careers and lifestyles.     

Remarks on the Modal Logic of Henry Bradford Smith

H. B. Smith, Professor of Philosophy at the influential Pennsylvania School was (roughly) a contemporary of C. I. Lewis who was similarly interested in a proper account of implication. His research also led him into the study of modal logic but in a different direction than Lewis was led. His account of modal logic does not lend itself as readily as Lewis' to the received possible worlds semantics, so that the Smith approach was a casualty rather than a beneficiary of the renewed interest in modality. In this essay we present some of the main points of the Smith approach, in a new guise.     

Increasing and decreasing intrinsic interest with contingent rewards: A test of cognitive evaluation theory

The study examined Deci's (Deci, E. L. Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press, 1975) hypotheses regarding the effects of contingent rewards on intrinsic task interest. Seventy-two male university students worked on a series of puzzles and were given either a high value reward ($1.50) or a low value reward ($.45). The money was given either contingent upon the simple execution of the task (task-contingent), contingent upon the ostensible attainment of a performance criterion level (criterion-contingent), or noncontingent and unexpected (control). Compared to the high payment control subjects, subjects who received the task-contingent high reward rated the task as less interesting, while subjects who received the criterion-contingent high reward rated it as more interesting. Also, subjects expressed less interest in the task after receiving the high task-contingent reward than the low task-contingent reward, but indicated greater interest after receiving the high criterion-contingent reward than the low criterion-contingent reward. It was concluded that substantial support was obtained for Deci's (1975) cognitive evaluation theory.     

Personality correlates of career choice in the Kibbutz: A comparison between career and noncareer women

The study compared Kibbutz career women (who studied beyond high school and worked in their profession) to Kibbutz noncareer women (who did not study beyond high school and worked in various nonprofessional jobs such as the laundry, the kitchen, and child care) on several personality characteristics. All subjects were nonorthodox Jewish women who were born and raised in the Kibbutz. The two groups completed a variety of self-report inventories, including the Bem Sex-Role Orientation Inventory, need for achievement inventory, two self-esteem scales that measured both the global self-esteem and various dimensions of self-esteem (academic, social, physical appearance, physical abilities, and self-regard) and Cattell's Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ), which is a short version of Cattell's 16 Personality Factors Test. The results showed that Kibbutz career women differed significantly from noncareer women on several personality characteristics. These women attributed to themselves more instrumental characteristics, were found to be more independent and emotionally stable, and had a higher need for achievement and a higher academic and social self-esteem. In addition, the division of household work was more egalitarian in the case of career women. The results are discussed in view of the fact that all of the career women were actually holding traditionally feminine positions such as teachers and social workers.     

The Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment: A comment on Elardo and Bradley's review

The published and unpublished research pertaining to Caldwell's Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) inventory was recently reviewed by R. Elardo and R. H. Bradley (Developmental Review, 1981, 1, 113–145). Their review was unfortunately deficient in a number of respects. For example, certain methodological issues bearing on the interpretation of the available data were either unrecognized or dismissed without adequate consideration. In addition, some of the data in the studies cited which contradicted or clouded their conclusions were omitted. An extension and reanalysis of the conclusions reached by Elardo and Bradley in light of recently published studies which were not included in their review, and data not discussed in the studies which were reviewed, is provided. Methodological problems are highlighted, and directions for future research are suggested.     

A self-efficacy approach to the career development of women

An approach to the conceptualization and facilitation of women's career development based on Bandura, 1977, Bandura, 1977, 84, 191–215) self-efficacy theory is presented. The model presented postulates that largely as a result of socialization experiences, women lack strong expectations of personal efficacy in relationship to many career-related behaviors and, thus, fail to fully realize their capabilities and talents in career pursuits. Sex differences in the access to and availability of four sources of information important to the development of strong expectations of personal efficacy are reviewed and discussed in relationship to women's career decisions and achievements. The utility of the proposed model for integrating existing knowledge of women's career development, for generating productive avenues of inquiry, and for guiding intervention efforts is discussed. The conceptual framework provided is seen as having implications for the career development of men as well as women, but the focus herein is on its potential for contributing to knowledge of the career development of women.     

Factors Influencing Men's Interest in Gene Testing for Prostate Cancer Susceptibility

Interest in genetic testing for inherited cancer susceptibility is high in the general population. Women at risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations represent the best-studied population undergoing genetic testing for cancer susceptibility. However, it is unclear whether factors influencing interest in genetic testing in women are directly applicable to men. We designed a study to examine factors associated with men's interest in genetic testing to identify prostate cancer susceptibility. Our sample consisted of 267 men present in waiting rooms of a urology clinic in an urban area. We examined whether the concept of monitoring could be used to predict the interest of men in a genetic test for prostate cancer susceptibility. Our results indicated that monitoring trait was positively associated with interest in genetic testing in these men, but principally for patients rather than nonpatients. Moreover we found that monitoring was associated with over estimation of risk in those men with prostate cancer. Other factors found to influence interest in genetic testing included recommendation by a doctor, family history of prostate cancer, and cost. This study indicated that interest in genetic testing and estimation of risk is influenced by a complex interaction between both psychological factors (monitoring) and nonbehavioral factors (such as patient status, cost, and doctor recommendation).     

Satiation for social reinforcers: The effects of contingency,vicarious experience,and ambiguous situations

The relative satiation effect, an inverse relationship between the frequency of prior social reinforcement (the word “good”) and the later effectiveness of the social reinforcer in controlling behavior, was studied. In Experiment 1, a discrimination task in which social reinforcement was given for correct responses was administered to first- to fourth-grade children (6 to 10 years of age), who had during a preexposure phase performed a preliminary task or observed another child performing. During the preexposure phase, the experimenter delivered frequent or infrequent social reinforcement that was either contingent or noncontingent. Only performers and observers who had experienced frequent noncontingent reinforcement showed the satiation effect during the discrimination task phase. The results were interpreted as inconsistent with J. L. Gewirtz' (Developmental Psychology, 1969, 1, 2–13) social drive formulation but supportive of an informational analysis in which the children are seen as responding appropriately to unambiguous evidence concerning the reliability of contingency information. In Experiment 2, seating arrangements were varied so that information concerning the direction of reinforcement was made ambiguous. Performers were less responsive during the discrimination phase after experiencing frequent noncontingent reinforcement when seated alone or opposite an observer than when seated next to an observer. The results are interpreted as indicating trust of the reliability of the contingency under ambiguous conditions.     

An investigation of racial differences on vocational variables among college women

This study used a sample of black and white college women matched on Duncan's (1961) socioeconomic indicator ratings to explore possible racial differences on vocationally relevant variables. There were no differences between the groups on age or educational level. The distribution of the parents' occupations by Holland type and the distribution of the subjects by their VPI type appeared to be quite similar. There were no significant differences based on: the relationship of the parents' occupational types to the subjects' VPIs: the relationship between the subjects' VPI types and their occupational choice or college major; the estimated likelihood of reaching the career goal; satisfaction with career choice or college major; and scores on two recent scales designed to measure vocational indecision. While no differences were found on the number of possible factors listed that might impede career goals, the distribution of the most important of these factors indicated there were differences between the two groups. These findings are discussed relative to their implications for interpreting previous research and carrying out future studies.     

Interest inventories based on Roe's classification modified for negative respondents

The Ramak and Courses interest inventories (Meir, 1974; Meir, Sohlberg, & Barak, 1973) based on Roe's 1956 occupational classification, were modified for use with subjects who answer negatively to most items in the traditional forms. One hundred thirty-six males, aged 19–21, responded to the Ramak and Courses inventories with the R ? A (Refuse, Undecided, Agree) scale. The split half reliability of the modified inventories is 0.75, and their occupational structure has the same shape and arrangement as the inventories with the Y ? N scale. Negative respondents give more positive responses (p < .05) on the modified forms than on the traditional ones.     

Interests of career and homemaking oriented women

The women's form of the SVIB and a Career Orientation questionnaire were administered to a sample of 90 undergraduate women. The sample was divided into two groups, career and homemaking oriented, on the basis of high-low career orientation scores. The two groups obtained significantly different scores on 25 of the 57 occupational scales on the women's SVIB. Career orientation correlated significantly with the academic achievement interest and homemaking basic interest scales of the SVIB but not with the femininity-masculinity scale. Results are discussed in terms of the interest patterns of career and homemaking-oriented students.