GENDER STEREOTYPES AND WOMEN'S REPORTS OF LIKING AND ABILITY IN TRADITIONALLY MASCULINE AND FEMININE OCCUPATIONS

Gender stereotypes were examined for their causal influence on women's reported liking for and perceived ability to succeed in traditionally masculine and feminine occupations. One hundred twenty-one women were assigned to either a gender-stereotype activation or filler task and then completed measures of liking for, and perceived ability to succeed in, traditionally masculine and feminine occupations. Strongly gender-identified women showed significantly greater liking for feminine occupations in the stereotype-activation condition than in the control condition. However, more weakly identified women did not show the same effect. In contrast, women weak in gender identification reported an increase in perceived ability for feminine occupations when stereotypes were activated than in the control condition. Activating gender stereotypes did not shift reported liking or perceived ability in traditionally masculine occupations. These results demonstrate the theoretical and practical importance of gender stereotypes on women's career-related attitudes.     

The Influence of Sex, Physical Attractiveness, Sex Role, and Occupational Sex-Linkage on Perceptions of Occupational Suitability

The effects of sex role and physical attractiveness stereotypes on subjects' perceptions of a stimulus person were examined in a field study of their influence on occupational suitability ratings. The present research distinguished the biological sex from the sex role of a hypothetical job applicant. A sample of personnel consultant subjects evaluated a male or female stimulus applicant, who was attractive or unattractive, for masculine, feminine, and sex-neutral occupations. The stimulus applicant was either masculine, feminine, or androgynous in hisher sex role. Consistent with the experimental hypothesis, masculine and androgynous persons were preferred to feminine persons for the masculine occupations while feminine and androgynous persons were preferred to masculine persons for the feminine occupations, regardless of biological sex or attractiveness. Also consistent with predictions, attractiveness influenced ratings for the sex-neutral occupations. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of individuating information about a stimulus person in eliminating the effects of stereotypes on judgments of individuals. Possible implications for personnel decision making are also considered.     

The dimensions of career and work orientation in college women

The purpose of this study was to clarify the meaning of the construct, career orientation. Fourteen presumed measures of career orientation as well as Super's Work Values Inventory were administered to college women. Analysis of the relationships among these variables identified two relatively independent clusters. The first cluster most closely approximated the usual definition of career orientation. Career-oriented women were found to be highly career motivated and perceived the career role as primary in their adult lives. The second cluster was called work orientation. This orientation characterized women with well-defined occupational aspirations who placed a high value on both the career role and marriage-family responsibilities in their future. Work-oriented women tended to choose traditionally feminine occupations in contrast to the career-oriented women whose aspirations included higher level and less traditional occupations.     

Sexual stereotypes of occupations

This study examined the nature of sex stereotypes of occupations as they exist among college students today. The method of eliciting sexual stereotypes of occupations was distinctive in that three types of rating criteria were used, each emphasizing a different aspect of perception, on the basis of which the ratings of occupations as masculine, feminine, or neutral were subsequently made. The results indicate that sexual stereotypes of occupations are clearly defined and held in agreement by both college men and college women. The study yielded information about the mean rating of each of 129 occupations in terms of its masculinity, femininity, and neutrality.     

Occupational sex stereotypes among college students

Occupational stereotypes among college students are examined. College students rated the 106 occupations contained in the Strong Interest Inventory according to the degree persons in these occupations contained masculine or feminine traits or according to the proportion of men and women employed in them. Men and women made equivalent ratings of occupations. Ratings for trait and proportion did not differ. Based on comparisons with Shinar's earlier research in 1975, it would appear that stereotyping has moderated even though it remained present in responses. Further comparisons show consistent differences in stereotyping based on the Holland occupational types of occupations rated. Implications for the use of interest inventories and the continuation of sex typing are presented.     

Aspects of Young Children's Perceptions of Gender-Typed Occupations

Perceived competencies of men and women in gender-typed occupations, perceptions about how much money men and women earn in gender-typed occupations, and affective reactions regarding growing up to have gender-typed occupations were examined in 55 primarily White middle-class preschoolers and primary school children. Children (particularly boys) viewed men as more competent than women in masculine occupations, and rated women as more competent than men in feminine occupations. Children believed men earned more than women across occupations, but that men earned more money than women in masculine occupations, and women earned more money than men in feminine occupations. Children's affective reactions to growing up to have gender-role-consistent occupations were more positive than their reactions to having gender-role-inconsistent occupations. Results suggest children perceive differential competencies of men and women regarding gender-typed occupations, and differences in pay for men and women within gender-typed occupations, at ages younger than previously determined.     

Interrelations among gender-role conflict, typicality of occupations, and self-esteem

The present study was conducted with 549 women and men who were employed in gender-typical occupations or who were in vocational training, further qualification, or retraining for one of these job. We examined whether a gender-typical occupation is related to gender-role conflicts of women and men in work settings and whether self-esteem moderates the experiences of conflict. Generally, we cannot confirm influence of gender-typical jobs on experience of conflict. The results, however, supply evidence for the fact that women experience higher gender-role conflicts than men in all occupations. Women and men of low self-esteem engaged in typically female occupations experience especially high gender-role conflict.     

The “good” professional: Effects of trait-profile gender type,androgyny, and likableness on impressions of incumbents of sex-typed occupations

Three studies utilizing an impression formation paradigm assessed perceived desirability of masculine, feminine, and androgynous trait profiles attributed to incumbents of sex-typed occupations. Participants in all three studies were predominantly upper middle class Caucasians. Approximately 60% were women and 40% were men. While a general masculinity bias was observed, several important qualifications to this bias were suggested. In Study I, trait likableness had a greater influence than did trait gender typing on impressions across occupations, suggesting the occurrence of centrality effects. Context effects also occurred in impressions of various combinations of particular masculine and feminine traits. Study 2 controlled trait likableness, and while a masculinity bias was still observed, androgynous profiles were rated as equally desirable as masculine profiles across occupations. Study 3 demonstrated that high levels of both masculinity and femininity resulted in favorable impressions, and support was obtained for an “interactive model” of androgyny, i.e., androgynous profiles were rated as more desirable than either gender-typed masculine or feminine profiles across occupations. Nonetheless, some evidence of a “matching bias” between trait gender typing and occupational sex typing was obtained in all three studies, especially for the male-typed occupation of lawyer and the female-typed occupation of nurse. The results are discussed in terms of the operation of “occupational role schemas” in perceptions of incumbents.     

Perceptions Now and Then of Occupational Sex Typing: A Replication of Shinar's 1975 Study

College students' perceptions of the sex typing of 129 occupations were gathered and compared with those reported by Shinar (1975). Questionnaires were completed by 72 males and 70 females. As in Shinar's study, a continuum of the perceptions of occupations from masculine to feminine was replicated. A comparison of the mean ratings for the occupations and of the percentages of women in each occupation in 1975 and 1988 is reported in a comprehensive table. The results indicated that occupational sex typing continues to exist and that women tend to perceive jobs as being more neutral than men do. However, the occupational sex typing may not be based on the actual percentages of women in the occupations.     

Perceived Influence of Male Sex Role Identity on Female Partner's Life Choices

The relationship between a man's sex role identity and his and his female partner's perceptions of his influence on her life choices was investigated in this study. Sex role identity was measured by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), and perception of influence was measured by the Interpersonal Influence Survey (IIS). The BSRI and IIS were administered by mail to 131 pairs of female graduate students and their male partners. Male and female perceptions of the man's influence were found to be related to the man's BSRI scores. Masculine men were not found to differ in their perceptions of influence from feminine or un-differentiated men, but they were found to have significantly lower perceptions of their influence than androgynous men. Feminine men were not found to differ in their perceptions of influence from masculine or undifferentiated men, but they were found to be lower in their perceptions of influence than androgynous men. Women with androgynous or feminine male partners perceived the man as being more influential than did female partners of masculine men, but they did not differ in their perceptions of male partner influence from women with undifferentiated male partners. Women with masculine or undifferentiated male partners did not differ in their perceptions of the male partner's influence.     

Truck Driver or Nurse? The Impact of Gender Roles and Occupational Status on Children’s Occupational Preferences

Three experiments examined how US children perceive occupational status and gender roles. In Experiment 1, 107 6-to-12-year-olds rated the status and gender roles of 54 occupations. Feminine occupations were underrepresented among the perceived high status jobs. In Experiment 2, 28 6-to-8-year-olds, and in Experiment 3, 36 9-to-12-year-olds, reported their preferences for equally high status masculine and feminine occupations and low status masculine and feminine occupations. In both experiments, girls preferred feminine to masculine occupations and status only affected preferences for masculine occupations. The younger boys’ preferences were based on both variables, whereas older boys’ preferences were based on status. These findings imply that occupational status may influence boys’ vocational preferences more than pressure to conform to masculine gender roles.     

Work options for women in women's magazines: The medium and the message

A content analysis of women profiled in women's magazines asked, How do “established” vs. “new” magazines differ in socialization messages about work options for women? Six established and four new magazines were analyzed from 1971 through 1980, for a total random sample of 232 issues (172 individual profiles). Three hypotheses were investigated. Compared to new magazines, established magazines are (1) less likely to present women in a variety of work roles and (2) more likely to profile women in “traditional” occupations. (3) Employed women profiled in established magazines are less likely to perceive themselves as having responsibility and/or power/influence in relation to their jobs. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were supported. The discussion highlights changes in both types of magazines but notes the fairly traditional message established magazines present vs. new magazines.     

Subdomains of Gender‐Related Occupational Interests: Do They Form a Cohesive Bipolar M‐F Dimension?

In four studies, with a total of 1780 male and 2969 female participants, subdomains of masculine and feminine occupations were identified from sets of occupational preference items. Identified masculine subdomains included "blue-collar realistic" (e.g., carpenter), "educated realistic" (electrical engineer), and "flashy, risk-taking" (jet pilot). Feminine subdomains included "fashion-related" (fashion model), "artistic" (author), "helping" (social worker), and "children-related" (manager of childcare center). In all studies, principal components analyses of subdomain preference scales showed that masculine subdomains were bipolar opposites of feminine subdomains. This bipolar structure emerged in analyses conducted on combined-sex groups, high-school boys, high-school girls, men, women, heterosexual men, gay men, heterosexual women, and lesbian women. The results suggest that, although there are distinct masculine and feminine occupational subdomains, gender-related occupational preferences, nonetheless, form a replicable, cohesive, bipolar individual difference dimension, which is not an artifact of studying mixed-sex or mixed-sexual-orientation groups.     

African American Women in the Workplace: Relationships Between Job Conditions, Racial Bias at Work, and Perceived Job Quality

Although studies have described work processes among employed African American women, few have examined the influence of these processes on job outcomes. This study examined relationships between African American women's exposure to a range of occupational stressors, including two types of racial bias—institutional discrimination and interpersonal prejudice—and their evaluations of job quality. Findings indicated that institutional discrimination and interpersonal prejudice were more important predictors of job quality among these women than were other occupational stressors such as low task variety and decision authority, heavy workloads, and poor supervision. Racial bias in the workplace was most likely to be reported by workers in predominantly white work settings. In addition, Black women who worked in service, semiskilled, and unskilled occupations reported significantly more institutional discrimination, but not more interpersonal prejudice, than did women in professional, managerial, and technical occupations or those in sales and clerical occupations.     

THE EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED JOB AVAILABILITY FOR WOMEN ON COLLEGE WOMEN'S ATTITUDES TOWARD PRESTIGIOUS MALE-DOMINATED OCCUPATIONS

This study investigated the effects of perceived job availability for women and sex role orientation on college women's evaluations of highly prestigious male-dominated occupations. In a mixed design, feminine, androgynous, and masculine women (as determined by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire) evaluated two professions described as providing good opportunities for women, two described as providing average opportunities, and two described as providing poor opportunities. Subjects were most likely to want to pursue occupations with good job availability for women and to expect the most intellectual stimulation and approval from others as a result of pursuing these occupations. In addition, sex role orientation was related to expectations concerning intellectual stimulation and approval from others but did not interact with level of job opportunity on any of the dependent measures.     

Gender, Physical Attractiveness, and Sex Role in Occupational Treatment Discrimination: The Influence of Trait and Role Assumptions

A field experiment was designed to examine the role of gender trait assumptions in occupational treatment discrimination. Professional personnel consultants evaluated male or female employees who were physically attractive or unattractive and masculine, feminine, or androgynous. Consultants made decisions about promotion, opportunity for special training, delegation of work assignments, and a child care leave of absence request in masculine, feminine, and sex-neutral occupations. Decisions about career development were strongly influenced by gender trait information, rather than by gender or attractiveness. In contrast, females were more likely than males to be granted a child care leave without pay, regardless of sex role. The results supported the assumption that the congruence between gender traits and the occupational requirements mediates occupational sex discrimination. Only for decisions involving competing role demands stemming from faily circumstances was there evidence that beliefs about appropriate roles for the sexes mediate discrimination. Implications of these findings are discussed in terms of new approaches for reducing sex discrimination in the treatment of employees.     

CROSS-CULTURAL SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN DYNAMIC STEREOTYPES: A COMPARISON BETWEEN GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES

This study examined cross-cultural similarities and differences in beliefs about men and women of the past, present, and future. These dynamic stereotypes , or beliefs that a group's present characteristics differ from its past or future characteristics, correspond to the actual role change experienced by the group ( Diekman & Eagly, 2000 ). Participants in Germany and the United States perceived that women were increasing in their masculine characteristics from the past to the future, whereas they perceived comparatively more stability in men's characteristics. The largest cross-cultural difference stemmed from beliefs about 1950s women, who were perceived as possessing greater positive masculine personality, negative feminine personality, and less feminine physical traits in Germany than in the United States. This greater nontraditionalism of postwar German women reflects their assumption of stereotypically male-dominated roles immediately after World War II. Consistent with social role theory, perceived role nontraditionalism mediated the relationship between time period and levels of gender-stereotypic characteristics.     

La valorisation professionnelle des caractéristiques de personnalité masculines,féminines et androgynes

This article examines the professional valorisation of gender-typed traits. In the study, participants should assess masculine, feminine and androgynous profiles in a set of professional contexts obtained by the crossing of social status (high versus low), gender (masculine versus feminine) and sector (production versus maintenance) of occupations. Consistent with a gender- typed trait matching model, the results showed that masculine profiles were the most valued ones in the most masculine occupations, feminine profiles were mostly valued in the most feminine occupations while androgynous profiles were the most valued in gender ambiguous occupations. Of particular interest was the fact that the perception of occupations’ gender was a function of the interaction between the gender and the sector of occupations (i.e.: the most masculine occupations were those that were stereotypically masculine and belonging to the production sector; the most feminine were those that were stereotypically feminine and belonging to the maintenance sector; the stereotypically masculine and maintenance occupations as the stereotypically feminine and production occupations were perceived as less gender typed).