A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF UPWARD FEEDBACK

This study followed 92 managers during four administrations of an upward feedback program over 2.5 years. Managers' whose initial level of performance (defined as the average rating from subordinates) was low improved between Administrations 1 and 2, and sustained this improvement 2 years later. Most of the performance improvement occurred between the first and second administrations of the program. The observed performance improvement could not be attributed solely to regression to the mean and was unrelated to the number of times, or when, the managers received feedback. Our results suggest that the continued administration of an upward feedback program can result in sustained change over a fairly long period of time and that actually receiving feedback may be less important than the exposure to the valued behaviors. We use control theory and goal setting theory as frameworks for explaining the results and suggesting directions for future research.     

THE EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK ACCOUNTABILITY ON UPWARD APPRAISAL RATINGS

Do subordinates feel and respond differently to upward appraisal procedures depending on whether they are accountable or anonymous? Accountability requires subordinates to identify themselves on the upward appraisal questionnaires they complete. In an experimental field study, 38 managers and their subordinates from an insurance company were randomly assigned to use one of the appraisal procedures. As hypothesized, managers who received feedback from specific individuals in the accountability procedure viewed the upward appraisal process more positively than did managers in the anonymity procedure. However, subordinates felt more comfortable giving anonymous responses. As a result, subordinates who used the accountability procedure rated their managers significantly higher than the subordinates who responded anonymously. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that an upward appraisal procedure in which individuals are accountable for their responses may produce inflated ratings of managers' performance. Further research should compare the accountability and anonymous upward appraisal procedures to determine which procedure produces more accurate ratings.     

CROSS-SITUATIONAL SPECIFICITY IN MANAGERs' PERCEPTIONS OF SUBORDINATE PERFORMANCE, ATTRIBUTIONS, AND LEADER BEHAVIORS

Managers' perceptions of subordinates' performance, causes (attributions) of subordinates' performance, and the leader behaviors they employed toward subordinates were examined from the standpoint of cross-situational consistency versus cross-situational specificity. Cross-situational consistency would be indicated if managers' perceptions of performance, attributions, and leader behaviors were stable over different situations, whereas cross-situational specificity would be indicated if these same perceptions indicated reliable variation, as a function of situation. Empirical results for 377 Navy managers provided strong support for cross-situational specificity. Results are discussed in relation to prior research, generated by interactional theory on consistency versus specificity of responses across situations, and in relation to research and developmental needs in leadership, attribution theory, and performance evaluation.     

RATER-RATEE RACE EFFECTS IN DEVELOPMENTAL PERFORMANCE RATINGS OF MANAGERS

The effects of rater and ratee race on performance ratings of managers were examined. Ratings were obtained from peers, subordinates and bosses as part of a multirater, developmental feedback program for managers. Two data sets were created for purposes of this study. The between-subjects data set consisted of ratings from over 20,000 bosses, over 50,000 peers, and over 40,000 subordinates. The repeated measures data set was substantially smaller because it included only those Black and White managers who were rated by both a Black and White rater from each of the three perspectives. Results for rater race indicated that Black raters from all perspectives (peers, subordinates, and bosses) assigned more favorable ratings to ratees of their own race. Results for White raters differed according to the particular rating source. White bosses assigned more favorable ratings to ratees of their own race, but White subordinates did not. White peers assigned more favorable ratings to Whites in the repeated measures analysis, but not in the between-subjects analysis. Results for ratee race indicated that both White and Black managers received higher ratings from Black raters than from White raters, and the effect was more pronounced for ratings assigned to Black managers.     

A TALE OF TWO CLIMATES: DIVERSITY CLIMATE FROM SUBORDINATES' AND MANAGERS' PERSPECTIVES AND THEIR ROLE IN STORE UNIT SALES PERFORMANCE

Applying Zohar's (2000) multilevel model of organizational climate, this study assessed the main and interactive effects of subordinates' and managers' diversity climate perspectives on store sales performance. Across 654 store units of a large U.S. retail organization, we observed main effects of subordinate and managerial diversity climates on unit sales percentage change and a significant subordinate × manager diversity climate perspective interaction. The greatest sales growth was found in stores wherein subordinates and management perceived highly pro-diversity climates (positive consistency). In contrast, the lowest sales growth was evident for stores in which both subordinates and managers reported less hospitable diversity climates (negative consistency). Our findings underscore the positive financial ramifications of highly consistent perceptions that diversity is valued in a work context.     

THE ROLE OF UPWARD INFLUENCE TACTICS IN HUMAN RESOURCE DECISIONS

A model was examined which proposes that employee influence tactics impact human resource decisions by affecting managers' perceptions of the subordinate's interpersonal skills, manager liking of subordinates, and managers' perceptions of similarity to subordinates. The human resource decisions investigated were performance ratings, promotability assessments, and salary. Data were collected from 247 subordinates and their managers and from company records. Structural equation modeling results indicated that influence tactics were related to managers' perceptions of subordinates' interpersonal skills, liking, and perceptions of similarity to subordinates. Specifically, subordinates' use of reasoning, assertiveness, and favor rendering were positively related to managers' perceptions whereas bargaining and self-promotion were negatively related to these perceptions. Finally, there was no support for direct relationships between influence tactics and HR decisions.     

AN UPWARD FEEDBACK FIELD EXPERIMENT: SUPERVISORS' CYNICISM, REACTIONS, AND COMMITMENT TO SUBORDINATES

A field experiment was conducted to examine outcomes associated with an upward feedback program in a policing agency. Experimental groups included 110 supervisors who were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: (a) a feedback group in which supervisors and subordinates completed surveys and received feedback at two time periods, or (b) a survey-only group in which supervisors and subordinates completed surveys at Times 1 and 2, but supervisors received feedback only at Time 2. Results showed no significant improvement for the feedback or survey-only group with regard to subordinate ratings of leadership. However, a significant decrease in self-rated leadership scores occurred between Time 1 and Time 2 for the supervisors receiving feedback at Time 1, and no such changes were observed for supervisors who were only surveyed at Time 1. In addition, Time 1 to Time 2 leadership change was predicted by organizational cynicism and the extent to which the recipient reacts positively to upward feedback and takes steps to improve. Thus, individual attitudes appear to be relevant to behavior change following upward feedback. In addition, leadership measured at Time 1 predicted supervisors' commitment to their subordinates at Time 2 for the feedback group, but not for the survey-only group. Such results demonstrate that outcomes in addition to performance, such as commitment to subordinates, need to be considered in the implementation of upward feedback programs.     

AGREEMENT BETWEEN SUBORDINATE AND SELF-RATINGS IN UPWARD FEEDBACK

This study examines measures of agreement between subordinate and self-ratings of leadership and boss/subordinate relationships in an upward feedback process conducted in a large department. Ratings were provided for 86 target managers from an average of six subordinates per manager. Individual characteristics of the target manager (sex and age) and organizational characteristics of the work unit (the target manager's organizational level and organizational unit, line or staff) were examined as correlates of agreement. Profile agreement (the correlation between self-ratings and the average subordinates'ratings across 48 items) was higher for female than male target managers, and was higher in line than staff units. Also, profile agreement increased over time for the 39 target managers rated one year later. Other findings indicated psychometric properties of upward feedback data. For instance, profile agreement was positively related to the number of subordinates in the work group. The discussion focuses on the need for research on variables that influence the reliability and usefulness of upward feedback data.     

The Effect of Upward Feedback on Managerial Behavior

Un feed-back de gratification a été donné par des subordonnés aux managers australiens d'une firme internationale de prestation de services. Dans cette recherche quasi-expérimentale, la perfomance au travail de ces managers, a pu être observée six mois plus tard par les subordonnés comme s'étant accrue par rapport à la performance initiale et à ceux obtenus par un groupe de comparaison. L'efficacité personnelle modère la portée de ces résultats suggérant qu'elle joue un rôle clé en déterminant des réactions comportementales au feed-back de gratification. L'orientation vers un but d'apprentissage fut corrélée de manière significative à leur performance subséquente.
Upward feedback from subordinates was provided to Australian managers in an international professional services firm. The job performance of the managers in this quasi-experimental study was observed by subordinates to be significantly higher six months later, compared to both initial performance and subordinate ratings of a comparison group. Self-efficacy moderated this finding, suggesting that it plays a key role in determining behavioral reactions to upward feedback. The managers' learning goal orientation correlated significantly with their subsequent performance.     

CORRELATES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL INFLUENCE: AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATE APPROACH TO WORK ENVIRONMENT PERCEPTIONS

Correlates of subordinates' perceptions of their psychological influence on supervisors' decisions were examined for 126 subordinates in high technology jobs and 205 subordinates in low technology, production line jobs. Based on the psychological climate perspective of work environment perceptions, it was predicted that perceptions of psychological influence would be related significantly to (a) situational attributes, including supervisor behaviors, (b) individual characteristics, and (c) person by situation interactions. Results supported these assumptions and suggested that a cognitive information processing model assists in explaining environmental perceptions.     

Modifying supervisory practices to improve subunit safety: a leadership-based intervention model

This article presents a leadership-based intervention model designed to modify supervisory monitoring and rewarding of subordinates' safety performance. Line supervisors received weekly feedback based on repeated episodic interviews with subordinates conceming the cumulative frequency of their safety-oriented interactions. This information identified the priority of safety over competing goals such as speed or schedules. Section managers received the same information and used it to communicate (high) safety priority. They also were trained to conduct episodic interviews to provide intermittent feedback after intervention, tuming safety priority into an explicit performance goal. Safety-oriented interaction increased significantly in the experimental groups but remained unchanged in the control groups. This change in safety-oriented interaction was accompanied by significant (and stable) changes in minor-injury rate, earplug use, and safety climate scores during the postintervention period.     

Developing Managerial Skills Through Coaching: Efficacy of a Cognitive-Behavioral Coaching Program

Managerial coaching is currently seen as an effective leadership practice facilitating learning process of the employees for performing better and being more effective in organizations. This article builds on recent research on the importance of the managerial coaching by empirically investigating the effects of a cognitive-behavioral coaching programme over mid-level managers. Due to the similarities between managerial coaching behaviors and transformational leadership behaviors, we have adopted the transformational leadership model as theoretical framework for evaluating management behaviors. The study used a pre-posttest approach to test the effects of the coaching program especially designed for 23 mid-level managers having as responsibility the supervision of production teams in a multinational organization. The major aims of the program consisted of: developing managerial coaching skills, assertive communication skills, motivation of subordinates. Overall, the analysis of results elicited an increase of scores in the leadership behavior dimensions measured by multifactor leadership questionnaire that are part of the managerial coaching skills. Besides, the effectiveness perceived as an indicator of performance was significantly higher upon completion of the coaching program. Findings suggest that coaching, as a professional development method, has great potential to contribute to the managerial behaviors that facilitate development at subordinate level, as they are captured by some transformational and transactional scales. Such knowledge can be informative for practitioners as well in developing effective managers and leaders and understanding and managing employee attitudes and behaviors in organizations.     

A FIVE-YEAR STUDY OF UPWARD FEEDBACK: WHAT MANAGERS DO WITH THEIR RESULTS MATTERS

We present results for 252 target managers over 5 annual administrations of an upward feedback program (i.e., twice as long as any previous study in this area). We show that managers initially rated poor or moderate showed significant improvements in upward feedback ratings over the 5-year period, and that these improvements were beyond what could be expected due to regression to the mean. We also found that (a) managers who met with direct reports to discuss their upward feedback improved more than other managers, and (b) managers improved more in years when they discussed the previous year's feedback with direct reports than in years when they did not discuss the previous year's feedback with direct reports. This is important because it is the first research evidence demonstrating that what managers do with upward feedback is related to its benefits. We use an accountability framework to discuss our results and suggest directions for future research.     

Accountability forces in performance appraisal

This experiment investigated the effects of two factors felt to influence the quality of ratings: anticipated feedback sharing and knowledge of subordinates' self-assessment. One hundred and eighty subjects receiving either favorable, unfavorable, or no subordinate self-assessment information were led to anticipate either face-to-face, written, or no feedback sharing with a subordinate. Main effects were found both for type of feedback sharing and level of subordinate self-assessment. Partial support was also found for the interaction of feedback sharing and partial self-assessment effects. Supervisors anticipating sharing face-to-face feedback with a subordinate rated the latter's performance significantly more positively than did supervisors who received no self-assessment data; while supervisors receiving knowledge of an unfavorable self-assessment rated their subordinates significantly more negatively than those receiving no self-assessment information. Ancillary analyses support the contention that the impact of knowledge of self-assessment information is largely motivational, as opposed to informational, in nature. Despite their potential to influence ratings, it is suggested that face-to-face feedback sharing requirements and the use of subordinate self-assessment data are not necessarily detrimental, but rather that care should be taken to minimize their potential to reduce rating quality.     

LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEAUTY SALON MANAGERS

A field study was conducted in a chain of beauty salons to determine how the leadership behavior of salon managers is related to managerial effectiveness. Leadership behavior was measured with a new questionnaire that was filled out anonymously by subordinates. Strong correlations were found between some of the leadership scales and salon profits, sales increase, performance ratings, subordinate satisfaction, and role ambiguity. The results were consistent with managerial role requirements derived from an analysis of the leadership situation.     

ASSESSMENT CENTERS AND SUBORDINATE APPRAISALS OF MANAGERS: A SEVEN-YEAR EXAMINATION OF PREDICTIVE VALIDITY

Assessment center ratings of 52 state law enforcement agency managers predicted both a contaminated promotions criterion and two uncontaminated ratings criteria, but they did significantly better in predicting the former. Criteria data were gathered two, four, and seven years after the assessment center, and a modest upward trend in validity coefficients was observed. Ratings by subordinates demonstrated promise as a near term predictor, outperforming the assessment center on uncontaminated criteria in the two- and four-year time frames. Last, regression analyses using Year 7 criteria revealed unique predictive power for both ratings by subordinates and assessment centers above and beyond that provided by supervisor ratings.
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Academy of Management meeting, Anaheim, California, August 7-10, 1988.     

PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF SUBORDINATE RATINGS OF MANAGERIAL PERFORMANCE

The purpose of the present study was to compare the psychometric properties of subordinate ratings of managerial performance to those of supervisor and self ratings. Subordinate ratings (n = 365), self-ratings (n = 80) and supervisor ratings ( n = 80) were obtained on eight performance dimensions for middle level managers in a multinational corporation. Multitrait-multimethod analysis of variance indicated significant effects for convergent validity, halo error, and discriminant validity. Comparisons between rating sources indicated that subordinate ratings are more similar to supervisor ratings than to self ratings in terms of convergent validity and leniency effect. A comparison of the present results to other studies indicated less convergent validity, more discriminant validity, and less halo error than found by others.     

Understanding the latent structure of job performance ratings

This study quantified the effects of 5 factors postulated to influence performance ratings: the ratee's general level of performance, the ratee's performance on a specific dimension, the rater's idiosyncratic rating tendencies, the rater's organizational perspective, and random measurement error. Two large data sets, consisting of managers (n = 2,350 and n = 2,142) who received developmental ratings on 3 performance dimensions from 7 raters (2 bosses, 2 peers, 2 subordinates, and self) were used. Results indicated that idiosyncratic rater effects (62% and 53%) accounted for over half of the rating variance in both data sets. The combined effects of general and dimensional ratee performance (21% and 25%) were less than half the size of the idiosyncratic rater effects. Small perspective-related effects were found in boss and subordinate ratings but not in peer ratings. Average random error effects in the 2 data sets were 11% and 18%.     

Why do Managers Engage in Trustworthy Behavior? A Multilevel Cross‐Cultural Study in 18 Countries

Drawing on theories of generalized exchange and the norm of indirect reciprocity, we conceptualize subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior directed toward the organization (OCBO) and directed toward peers (OCBI) as antecedents of managerial trustworthy behavior and examine how managers’ affective trust in subordinates mediates this relationship. We also investigate the extent to which this mediation is moderated by the level of collectivism in a society. Data were collected from 741 managers and 2,111 subordinates in 18 countries representing all major cultural regions of the world. We find support for our hypothesized moderated mediation in that managers’ affective trust in subordinates mediates the relationships between both subordinates’ OCBO and managerial trustworthy behavior, and subordinates’ OCBI and managerial trustworthy behavior across the different countries studied. Further, managers’ affective trust in subordinates only mediates the relationships between both types of citizenship behavior and managerial trustworthy behavior when collectivism is low to medium but not when it is high. Implications for research on cross‐cultural psychology, trust, and organizational citizenship behavior are discussed.