Conditioning experiences and phobias

A retrospective study was conducted to examine the extent to which phobias are associated with a conditioning pathway to fear. The Phobic Origin Questionnaire (Öst and Hugdahl, Behav. Res. Ther. 19, 439–477, 1981) was administered to a sample of 91 phobic outpatients (patients with panic disorder with agoraphobia, social phobics, simple phobies). Results show clearly that conditioning experiences occur more frequently than either vicarious or informational, learning experiences, which confirms the findings previously reported by Rimm, Janda, Lancaster, Nahl and Dittmar (Behav. Res. Ther. 15, 231–238, 1977) and by Öst and Hugdahl (1981; Behav. Res. Ther. 21, 623–631, 1983). Yet, conditioning experiences consist mainly of panic attacks in confined environments. The findings also suggest that a considerable number of phobias are based on a combination of different pathways to fear.     

Conditioning circuits

A circuit of mutually exciting neurones capable of approaching and maintaining a state of permanent excitation has been described by Rashevsky as a possible mechanism for the production of conditioned reflexes. The mode of approach of such a circuit to the steady state is examined in some detail under slightly more general assumptions, and an estimate is made of the order of magnitude of the time required to reach this state.     

Conditioning,learning and psychopathology

The total of all conditioning and learning may be summed up as part of the adaptive patterns for survival. Adaptive learning is the person's way of discovering how to live successfully. He is not just sick or well. In one fashion or another, he learnshow to be sick orhow to be well within a certain milieu. Personality function signifies the integrant of this learning as the individual tries to realize his potentials, live effectively, and achieve gratification. Should his learning be deficient or distorted in any area proportionate difficulties in his total function will afflict him. Such areas of insufficiency or distress expose the psychopathologic process.

The ever-changing patterns of conditioning and adaptive learning continually modify mental function and create a feedback; the learning is used adaptively and adaptation, doubling back, adds to the learning. As the person adapts according to what he is and what he has learned, his ensuing patterns, still in the process of being conditioned, further change him and make him what he will be.

     

Bidirectional Instrumental Conditioning

Three experiments examined bidirectional instrumental conditioning by training hungry rats to push a pole in one direction for food pellets and in the other for either a sugar or a starch solution. In the first study we examined whether the animals learned about the actionreinforcer relations using a specific satiety procedure. Prefeeding one type of reinforcer before an extinction test selectively depressed the performance of the action that had been paired with this reinforcer during training. The second experiment investigated the sensitivity of the bidirectional actions to variations in the action-reinforcer contingencies. When the instrumental contingency was degraded by presenting unpaired reinforcers, the animals pushed less in the direction that was paired with the reinforcer type that was the same as the non-contiguous one. A third study revealed that increasing the rate of reinforcement for one action enhanced its rate of performance without significantly affecting the performance of the other action. We conclude that the effects of reinforcer devaluation, the action-outcome contingency, and the rate of reinforcement are not mediated by Pavlovian associations between the manipulandum and the reinforcer.     

Conditioning as sensitization

The concept of sensitization has a long history in psychology, and on both empirical and logical grounds it has been argued that sensitization and conditioning denote different neurophysiological processes. Investigators have devised elaborate control procedures that purport to differentiate sensitized and conditioned responses. But, mainly on logical grounds, it is argued that there is no valid basis for considering sensitization and conditioning as separate processes. A theory of learning is proposed in which sensitization is the basic construct.     

Luther and Gender: Shifts in Paradigms and Orientations

Considering the tenderness and detail with which Luther attends to matters “all about Eve” in his Genesis lectures—and how he treats the matriarchs in the Genesis narrative—we can say that gender and women constitute a central interest for the reformer. He developed, in his context, a new theological anthropology that valued women's biological distinction, difference within sameness in creation, and absolute equality in redemption and callings. While his gender ideology is a work in progress, Luther's instincts are modern, if not even feminist, when placing the uterus at the central place of the delivery of the saving incarnate Word.     

Conditioning history and human fixed-interval performance

The effects of two different conditioning histories upon human operant behavior under a FI 10-sec schedule of point reinforcements were investigated. Relatively high rates of continuous inter-reinforcement responding characterized the FI 10-sec performance of subjects with an FR 40 conditioning history. Low response rates with little or no inter-reinforcement responding were emitted by Ss with a DRL 20-sec conditioning history.     

Positive Paradigm Shifts in Health Care

The American health delivery system is undergoing enormous change. Some of the changes threaten the spiritual underpinnings of the hospital movement and discount theological insights into the nature of healing. This article identifies and advocates six health care paradigms that are grounded in the Judeo-Christian ethic.     

Conditioning and the Coordination of Movements

(Krech, D., and Crutchfield, R. S. Theory and Problems of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948. Pp. 639.) Reviewed by Gwynne Nettler