Ego Development during the Transition from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study

Although Loevinger's (1976) ego development theory represents a milestone approach to life-span personality development, little is known about ego development during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood, including the average gain in group means, whether individuals maintain their relative position to each other, and age-related changes in within-cohort variability. These issues are examined using the ongoing Block and Block Longitudinal Study. Across a 9-year interval—from age 14 to age 23—the findings indicate that: (a) the average person gains approximately 1.5 ego development steps, (b) within-cohort variability in ego development increases with age, (c) ego level at ages 14 and 23 is moderately related, (d) large individual differences exist in the timing and extent of ego development, and (e) the magnitude of change is smallest for individuals who have already reached the Self-aware level as adolescents. The findings suggest that the Self-aware level represents a developmental “hurdle” during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Possible explanations are explored in terms of pacers for ego development.     

情绪调节效应的发展:一个V型发展趋势

从青少年早期到成人早期,个体情绪调节等高级社会认知功能得到进一步完善,对情绪调节的需求也日趋增长。情绪调节的发展是青少年情绪社会化发展一个重要的任务,学会采用有效的调节策略对自身情绪进行调节是青少年社会性发展的一个重要表现。在众多关于青少年社会行为研究中,对负性情绪调节能力的探究最为成熟与深入。以往研究指出,儿童青少年对负性情绪的体验激活和调控失败都是导致其非适应性行为的原因,情绪调节方式的错误选择会与其外化行为问题和和内化行为问题有很大的关联。由于青少年适应性行为的习得是多种社会性发展指标的重叠和交叉作用的体现,我们无法完全理清其中的复杂交互作用,因此从情绪调节策略的使用效应发展入手探讨个体的适应是寻求问题解决的一个可行手段。 以往研究者认为,成熟且有效的情绪调节指的是,个体能够通过控制自身的激活和唤醒以达到情绪性、生理性和社交的适应,最后达成个人的目标。情绪调节的发展也可被看作是从被动式的、有他人参与的调节（例如,社会性参照）逐渐进步为主动的、有意识的根据外部线索进行的情绪调节（例如,根据指导语提示调整自己情绪状态）。 本研究旨在探究不同年龄被试（青少年早期、青少年晚期、成人早期）在按照不同指导语提示要求下增强调节和减弱调节调节效应量的年龄差异。选取上海市初中生被试35名（22男,13女;M = 14.06岁,SD = 0.42 岁, 年龄范围：13-15岁）、高中生被试37名（13男,24女;M=16.56岁, SD=0.56岁, 年龄范围：16-18岁）以及成人被试35名（9男,26女;M = 23.60岁,SD = 1.96岁, 年龄范围：20-29岁）,采用3（年龄：初中生、高中生、成人,被试间变量）? 3（情绪刺激：正性、中性、负性,被试内变量）? 3（调节策略：增强调节、减弱调节、不调节,被试内变量）混合实验设计,使用情绪反应性—调节图片任务（Reactivity and Regulation-Image Task,REAR-I Task）对不同年龄被试情绪调节策略使用的效应量进行考察（Carthy, Horesh, Apter, Edge, & Gross, 2010）。 研究发现,从总体趋势来说,情绪调节策略的效应发展呈V型发展趋势。当不同年龄被试按照指导语要求对其情绪体验进行主动调节时,成人被试的调节效应是最大的,初中生次之,而高中生的调节效应则最低。情绪调节的V型发展趋势与以往研究中关于情绪调节态度以及自我发展的趋势相一致。另外,与增强调节策略的使用相比,减弱调节策略效应的发展是最大的。这可能与中国背景下减弱调节的适应价值有关。     

The Interplay of Self‐Certainty and Prosocial Development in the Transition from Late Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood

The transition from late adolescence to emerging adulthood is a period of the life span that offers young people the possibility to consolidate their self‐certainty and prosociality. Both aspects are of core importance for increasing personal and societal well‐being. The purpose of this longitudinal study was twofold: (i) to examine patterns of change and stability in self‐concept clarity and prosociality; and (ii) to unravel over time associations between these constructs in the transition from late adolescence to emerging adulthood. In addressing both aims, we explored the moderating effects of gender. Participants were 244 Dutch emerging adults (46% male; mean age at T1 = 16.73 years) who completed six waves of data collection (mean age at T6 = 22.7 years). Findings highlighted that (i) self‐concept clarity developed nonlinearly, with an initial decline from T1 to T2 followed by an increase thereafter, while prosociality increased linearly over time and both self‐concept clarity and prosociality were characterized by high rank‐order consistency; (ii) self‐concept clarity and prosociality were positively related over time, with the effect of prosociality on self‐concept clarity being stronger than the reciprocal effect of self‐concept clarity on prosociality. Gender differences were detected in mean levels of self‐concept clarity and prosociality (male participants reported higher self‐concept clarity and lower prosociality than female participants) but not in their developmental pathways nor in their reciprocal associations. Copyright © 2016 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Longitudinal Associations between Violence and Suicidality from Adolescence into Adulthood

The link between violence and suicide is well documented. Previous studies, however, largely rely on cross‐sectional designs or only consider violence as an antecedent of suicide. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the longitudinal relationship between violence and suicide from adolescence into young adulthood. Data were derived from Wave II (1995–1996), Wave III (2001–2002), and Wave IV (2007–2008) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 8,966). We tested (2011–2013) a series of path analysis models in Mplus to determine the longitudinal associations between violence and suicidality. Results from the path analyses indicated that violence and suicidality mutually affect each other from adolescence into young adulthood. We found some evidence that the association between suicidality and violence was stronger for males compared to females, particularly in early and young adulthood. The current study confirms previous findings by demonstrating that violence is a risk factor for future suicide. We also extended the previous literature by demonstrating that a history of suicidality is associated with future risk for violence. Our findings highlight the importance of further integrating prevention efforts to reduce violence and suicidality during adolescence and early/young adulthood.     

Conceptions of the Transition to Adulthood: Perspectives From Adolescence Through Midlife

Conceptions of the transition to adulthood were examined among adolescents (age 13–19, N = 171), emerging adults (age 20–29, N = 179), and young-to-midlife adults (age 30–55, N = 165). The focus was on whether conceptions of the transition to adulthood would be different among young-to-midlife adults compared to the younger age groups. In all age groups, individualistic criteria were the most likely to be considered important markers of the transition to adulthood, specifically accepting responsibility for one's actions, deciding on one's beliefs and values, establishing an equal relationship with parents, and becoming financially independent. However, young-to-midlife adults were less likely than adolescents to consider biological transitions to be important, and more likely than adolescents or emerging adults to view norm compliance (such as avoiding drunk driving) as a necessary part of the transition to adulthood. In all three groups, role transitions (e.g., marriage) ranked lowest in importance.     

The Development of Marijuana Dealing Behavior During Adolescence and Early Adulthood Among Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors for Development

ABSTRACT

Despite the amount of attention paid to marijuana use, there has yet to be any research that examines heterogeneity in the development of marijuana dealing behavior across time. This research used group-based trajectory modeling to elucidate developmental trends in this behavior and examines how risk factors may predict heterogeneity in marijuana dealing among a sample of juvenile offenders. The Pathways to Desistance data set, a sample of 1,354 juvenile offenders followed across 84 months during adolescence and early adulthood following a recent adjudication, was utilized in analyses. Results indicate that a five-group model best fits the data. Results indicate that higher baseline resistance to peer influence was associated with increased risk of assignment to the Accelerating and High Chronic groups, whereas baseline marijuana use was associated with assignment to the Accelerating, Desisting, and High Chronic groups when all covariates were included in estimation. This indicates that juvenile offenders may be at risk for dealing marijuana during adolescence and use of the drug and low susceptibility to peer influence may indicate higher risk for engagement.     

Age-Related Differences in the Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood and Links with Family Relationships

This study examined differences on major aspects of attaining adult status in the transition from adolescence into young adulthood. The attainment of developmental tasks and the quality of parent–child relationships were compared across adolescence and young adulthood. In addition, the extent to which relationships with parents are related to the attainment of young adulthood developmental tasks was also investigated. The study was conducted on 169 Israeli adolescents, early young adults, and late young adults. Results showed that developmental tasks are attained at different stages, and that the consolidation of adult status is achieved closer to the end of the third decade of life. Relationships with parents were found to be more positive following the transition from adolescence to early young adulthood. Adaptation of young adults was explained by the quality of relationships with parents and especially with fathers.     

The Stability of Self-Concept During Adolescence and Early Adulthood: A Six-Year Follow-Up Study

The stability and gender differences of self-concept during adolescence and early adulthood were studied in 894 randomly selected Finnish subjects using the shortened version of the Coopersmith (1967) Self-Esteem Inventory. There were no differences between the men and women in the total score for self-concept. In early adulthood, men scored higher than women on general self-esteem, and women scored higher on the home-parents factor in each developmental period from preadolescence to adulthood. The stability of self-concept, as well as its different components, was rather high. General self-esteem showed the highest predictive value for the total score 6 years later.     

Psychosocial Considerations in Sickle Cell Disease (SCD): The Transition from Adolescence to Young Adulthood

Sickle cell disease (SCD) occurs in 1 of every 400 to 500 African American births. Despite its prevalence, there has been a relative dearth of attention paid to SCD in the psychological literature. African American SCD adolescents and young adults, individuals at an already vulnerable developmental stage, are at increased risk for psychological distress and psychosocial impairments (e.g., depression and low self-esteem, poor social and academic/vocational functioning). Such difficulties often result in problematic adherence to medical regimens, and thus represent a potentially serious clinical and public health problem that merits the attention of psychologists working in medical settings. This article (1) reviews the psychosocial needs peculiar to SCD patients transitioning from adolescence to young adulthood; (2) applies a culturally informed stress-coping-adjustment framework to assess and address the psychological status, psychosocial functioning, and disease outcomes of these individuals; and (3) describes a culturally and developmentally sensitive, psychoeducational group intervention.     

Peer Substance Use and Homelessness Predicting Substance Abuse from Adolescence Through Early Adulthood

Adolescents who experience homelessness are at higher risk for abusing substances, and for being exposed to substance-using peers. The current study used a longitudinal design to track substance abuse, affiliation with substance-using peers, and episodes of homelessness among a sample of 223 adolescents who were housed at the baseline data collection and 148 adolescents who were housed at baseline. Participants were interviewed at six waves over 6.5 years, covering an age range from 13 to 25. Many participants experienced a recurrence of homelessness during follow-up, with 64.6 % of the baseline homeless group and 22.6 % of the baseline housed group reporting an additional episode of homelessness. Both alcohol abuse and other drug abuse symptoms showed an increase in adolescence followed by slowing in early adulthood. Recent homelessness and friend alcohol use predicted alcohol abuse symptoms, and the strength of the influence of friend use decreased over time. Recent homelessness and friend drug use predicted other drug abuse symptoms. Duration of the initial episode of adolescent homelessness showed no influence on substance abuse over time, or the effects of other predictors, highlighting the importance of conceptualizing the experience of homelessness as a recent stressor rather than an enduring personal characteristic.     

The Relation Between Anxiety Sensitivity and Attachment Style in Adolescence and Early Adulthood

Given the accumulating evidence for a role of anxiety sensitivity in the etiology of panic, it is important to understand the developmental origins of anxiety sensitivity. To this end, this study examined the relation between attachment beliefs and anxiety sensitivity in a sample of high school students (n = 203; mean age 15.7 years) and university students (n = 324; mean age 21.7 years). The Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR; K. Brennan, C. Clark, &; P. Shaver, 1998) was used to assess attachment beliefs and to classify participants into attachment groups. The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; R. A. Peterson &; S. Reiss, 1987) was used to assess participants' levels of anxiety sensitivity. Results supported the hypothesis that individuals with insecure attachment, specifically those classified as preoccupied and fearful (i.e., those with a negative model of self), had significantly higher anxiety sensitivity scores than securely attached individuals in both the high school and college samples.     

Traumatic Events,Psychiatric Disorders,and Pathways of Risk and Resilience During the Transition to Adulthood

The goal in this study was to investigate the occurrence, frequency, and consequences of traumatic events during the first 2 decades of life. The sample omprised 524 Euro-American young adults from the rural Midwest who are part of an ongoing longitudinal study (see Conger & Conger, 2002). We found that psychiatric disorders were associated with traumatic events and particularly strongly associated with experiences of childhood maltreatment. Maltreated children were 5.64 times more likely to develop a disorder than individuals who xperienced no trauma. These odds varied, depending on the disorder, from more than 3 for alcohol dependence to more than 18 for drug dependence. We found that social support acted to reduce risk for emotional disorder and buffered effects of traumatic events under some circumstances, especially in cases of childhood trauma.     

心理时间旅行与自我:发展中关系模式的转换

该研究分别考察了儿童中晚期(9~12岁)、少年期(13~15岁)和青年早期(17岁、19岁、21岁)个体心理时间旅行的发展模式,并进一步探讨了不同年龄阶段,情景记忆和自我对情景预见作用模式的转换。研究采用访谈法评估心理时间旅行,以自我描述(儿童期和少年期)或自我连续性(青年早期)作为评估自我的指标。研究发现:(1)儿童中晚期,想象未来情景细节的数量随年龄增长而增加,少年期和青年早期的情景预见能力则趋于平稳,与情景记忆的发展趋势一致;(2)无论在哪个年龄段,情景记忆对情景预见都是有效的预测源;(3)自我描述在少年期才开始对情景预见产生预测作用;(4)青年早期,情景记忆以自我连续性为中介变量作用于情景预见。     

Traits in Transition: The Structure of Parent‐Reported Personality Traits from Early Childhood to Early Adulthood

The present research was conducted to map the hierarchical structure of youths' personality traits, to identify the foundational level of this structure, and to test whether the meanings of some youth personality dimensions shift with age. We addressed these issues by analyzing personality parent reports describing a cross‐sectional sample of 16,000 children, adolescents, and young adults (ages 3 to 20). These parent reports were made using a broadband measure of youths' personal characteristics, the common‐language California Child Q‐Set. Analyses of the full sample and comparisons of 16 age groups supported three main conclusions. First, the hierarchical structure of youths' personality traits both resembles and differs from the adult personality hierarchy in important ways. Second, a set of six dimensions—Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Openness to Experience, and Activity—may constitute the foundational level of the youth personality hierarchy from middle childhood through adolescence. This “Little Six” structure represents a union of the most prominent personality and temperament dimensions. Third, the meanings of some youth personality dimensions (e.g., Activity, Conscientiousness) shift systematically with age. These findings advance our understanding of when and how personality structure develops during the first two decades of life.     

Cigarette Smoking,Academic Lifestyle,and Social Impact Efficacy: An Eight-Year Study from Early Adolescence to Young Adulthood1

Two hundred and twenty-one males and 518 females were followed for 8 years from early adolescence. A causal model was proposed that related five constructs measured in adolescence to four corresponding constructs measured 8 years later. The predictor constructs included smoking involvement, academic lifestyle orientation, emotional well-being, social impact efficacy, and peer smoking behavior. Academic lifestyle orientation was found to be a central organizing construct, with the strongest within-time and across-time correlations with other constructs. The relatively weak causal influences of teenage smoking and teenage social impact efficacy suggested an explanation for the limited impact of past drug abuse prevention programs. Policy implications are discussed.     

Substance Use Progression from Adolescence to Early Adulthood: Effortful Control in the Context of Friendship Influence and Early-Onset Use

In a sample of 998 ethnically diverse adolescents, a multiagent, multimethod approach to the measurement of adolescent effortful control, adolescent substance use, and friendship influence was used to predict escalations to early-adult tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use by ages 22-23. Structural equation modeling revealed that adolescent substance use and friends' substance use tended to be highly correlated and together were robust predictors of a problematic pattern of usage for all substances in early adulthood. In addition, the adolescent effortful control construct directly predicted progressions to problematic use of tobacco and marijuana, but not for alcohol. In the alcohol model, effortful control interacted with the construct of substance use lifestyle (based on adolescent alcohol use and friends' substance use) when predicting problematic alcohol use in early adulthood. Results held when comparing across genders and across ethnic groups. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing adolescent self-regulation in interventions designed to treat and prevent early-adult substance abuse.     

The Transition to Young Adulthood: Generational Boundary Dissolution and Female Identity Development

This research explored links between differential qualities of family connectedness and young adult females' development of an independent identity. Identity development involves exploration of possible roles and choices in particular domains such as occupation, dating, and friendship, followed by commitment to a set of values and behaviors in one of these areas. In this study, women who reported that their parents encouraged autonomy while still maintaining closeness also reported more exploration in their friendship and dating relationships. In contrast, reports of parent-child boundary dissolution, characterized by role-reversal, enmeshment, and overinvolvement, were related to less exploration, particularly in dating relationships. Mother-daughter boundary dissolution, specifically, was linked to women'stendency to base their commitments to a career and relationships with others on parental values and expectations without ever exploring alternative choices. Father-daughter boundary dissolution was related to lower exploration as well as lower commitment to values and beliefs in any area. These findings lend support to theoretical and clinical impressions that inter-generational boundary violations hinder the development of an independent identity.     

The Development of Implicit Epistemologies During Early and Middle Adulthood

This study examined the development of implicit epistemologies of Finnish adults during the last ten years. It was hypothesized that specific adult experiences are stimulating for development. Moreover, a person's exploratory orientation was hypothesized to be related to development. Kitchener and King's model and method of Reflective Judgment provided tools to study adolescents' and adults' epistemologies and their possible development. Participants (N = 59) were given initial (1986–1988) and follow-up (1993–1994) Reflective Judgment interviews. The age range was from 24–50 years in the follow-up groups. The Reflective Judgment mean stage scores clearly increased during the two study periods (M₁ = 4.64,M₂ = 5.10; F(1, 58) = 32.82, p = .000). Education, in particular education beyond a person's primary profession/occupation, was a strong predictor of development. Also, encountering diversity and exploratory orientation were related to development, but their connections were more complicated. No gender differences were found. The results support the idea that positive changes in thinking and reasoning take place during adulthood.     

The Transmission of Values and the Transition into Adulthood Within the Context of Home Education

The current study explored the transmission of values and beliefs and the transition into adulthood within the context of home education through semi-structured open-ended interviews with four formerly home-educated young adults. The interviewees described their relationship with their parents as strong both now and while homeschooling but the younger two participants did not show clear signs that they closely maintained their parents' religious beliefs. All participants indicated that their transition to adulthood contained some transitional bumps but the difficulty of these bumps was mitigated by a strong parent-child relationship. The youngest participant seemed to be in the midst of a transitional strain.