Organizational Change: The Role of Organizational Culture and Organizational Learning

Recent findings suggest that organizational culture and learning impact organizational performances. We report the results of an organizational change program focused upon strengthening further productivity in a public sector organization. The findings suggest that systematic and structured programs that include specific organizational goals, performance measures, performance feedback mechanisms, and incentives yield enhancements of targeted organizational performances. We present guidelines to promote organizational change and suggest that perceived collective efficacy plays an important role in changing organizational culture.

     

Sources of Perceived Organizational Support: Goal Setting and Feedback1

In this paper we examine goal setting and feedback as possible sources of perceived organizational support (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). Surveys were administered to 337 employees from 3 different organizations in the southern California area. Two path models were examined: one that allowed goal setting and feedback to have direct effects on perceived support and organizational commitment, and one that only allowed goal setting and feedback to have direct effects on perceived support. Results show that goal setting and feedback do not have direct effects on organizational commitment but, rather, affect commitment indirectly by way of their effects on employee perceptions of support from the organization.     

Enhancing professional performance through organizational change

Transferring the technology derived from research into the routine operation of professionals serving developmentally disabled clients may present a challenge. Assuming this is due in part to the contingencies operating within the system, methods need to be sought to alter the way they are arranged. Performance management (PM) lends itself to this type of organizational change. In the present case example, the management of psychological services at an institution for developmentally disabled people was reorganized to incorporate the key elements of PM: Selecting contextually relevant and appropriate goals (i.e., consonant with the state, institution, departmental, unit and individual client objectives), devising and applying measures of relevant performances, and intervening with feedback, reinforcement and goal setting while evaluating ongoing change. The self-selection and completion of goals among the 40 professionals participating in 4 groups was supported by biweekly review and reinforcement sessions plus occasional delivery of extrinsic rewards. Professionals increased the number of goals they reported accomplishing and the number they planned to achieve gradually began to match more closely the number reported accomplished. Results were sufficiently promising to encourage future functional analyses of such an organizational operation as well as of the components that might contribute most heavily to its success.     

Goal Setting Theory,Job Feedback,and OCB: Lessons From a Longitudinal Study

This study examines the relationships among goal setting, job feedback, and employees' formal and informal performance. We argue that the knowledge gained in the field of goal setting may be useful in understanding organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), beyond formal performance. A longitudinal design based on two points in time (T1, T2) and four research stages (A-D) was developed to test a series of hypotheses among student-employees. 176 participants provided data on goal setting (goal specificity and goal difficulty) and on work attitudes (job satisfaction, organizational justice, job commitment) at T1 (stage A). 23 supervisors provided additional data on formal performance and OCB at T1 (stage B) and at T2 (stage D). Employees were given feedback regarding their formal and informal work performance between T1 and T2 (stage C). The results generally support a positive relationship between goal setting, formal performance, and altruistic OCB at T1 but not at T2. Furthermore, job feedback was related to formal performance and to altruistic and compliance OCB at T2. Implications of these findings are discussed in both the context of goal setting theory and the ongoing study of OCB.     

AGREEMENT BETWEEN SUBORDINATE AND SELF-RATINGS IN UPWARD FEEDBACK

This study examines measures of agreement between subordinate and self-ratings of leadership and boss/subordinate relationships in an upward feedback process conducted in a large department. Ratings were provided for 86 target managers from an average of six subordinates per manager. Individual characteristics of the target manager (sex and age) and organizational characteristics of the work unit (the target manager's organizational level and organizational unit, line or staff) were examined as correlates of agreement. Profile agreement (the correlation between self-ratings and the average subordinates'ratings across 48 items) was higher for female than male target managers, and was higher in line than staff units. Also, profile agreement increased over time for the 39 target managers rated one year later. Other findings indicated psychometric properties of upward feedback data. For instance, profile agreement was positively related to the number of subordinates in the work group. The discussion focuses on the need for research on variables that influence the reliability and usefulness of upward feedback data.     

Using goal setting, task clarification, and feedback to increase the use of the hands-free technique by hospital operating room staff

We evaluated the effects of a behavioral treatment on the safe passing of sharp instruments using the hands-free technique among hospital operating room personnel during surgical procedures. Treatment consisted of participative goal setting, task clarification, and feedback. The average percentage of sharp instruments passed safely increased from 32% to 64% and 31% to 70% between baseline and treatment phases in the inpatient and outpatient surgery units, respectively. Five-month follow-up data suggested maintenance of treatment effects. These findings suggest the utility of organizational behavior management strategies in reducing risky behavior in hospital settings.     

职业紧张与组织对策分析:LISREL建模

本研究以职业紧张的认知中介理论为出发点 ,分析了管理措施、个体控制感和职业紧张之间的相互关系 ,并在此基础上 ,运用 L isrel建模方法 ,提出了职业紧张的组织参与对策、目标设置对策和领导支持对策。     

Improving metacognition: A comparison of interventions

Accurate knowledge monitoring is critical to the learning process, as it allows one to regulate studying and test preparation. Thus, a number of investigations have attempted to improve metacognition in the classroom, with the ultimate goal of improving student exam performance. However, such interventions have had inconsistent success using varying paradigms. We compared the effectiveness of five interventions aimed at improving prediction accuracy in a laboratory environment: review, salient feedback, motivation warning lecture, incentives, and reflection. Only the salient feedback and the motivation warning lecture interventions significantly improved participants' prediction accuracy from test 1 to test 2. Review, incentives, and reflection did not improve predictive or postdictive calibration. Well‐timed salient feedback and a lecture warning students not to be biased by desired grades were effective methods of improving calibration accuracy. Results offer effective interventions to improve metacognition that could be used in a classroom setting.     

The influence of monetary incentives on goal choice,goal commitment,and task performance

This study was designed to investigate the mechanism by which monetary incentives influence goal choice, goal commitment, and task performance. It is hypothesized that the explanation for incentive effects on goals and performance is in their influence on mediating events. A model attempting to explain the process of goal choice, work motivation, and performance in terms of cognitions is presented. Subjects were recruited for 5 days of part-time employment in a simulated organization to perform a clerical data transfer task. The 130 subjects were assigned randomly to 7 experimental conditions differing in terms of the magnitude of incentive offered for various levels of performance. The quantity and quality of performance was recorded daily and research questionnaires were administered at different times during their employment. Results provide support for the model presented and therefore suggest that the process of goal choice and commitment is central to understanding how incentives influence goals, motivation, and performance. The model provides a useful basis for investigating the relationships between organizational context and employee cognitions and for integrating goal setting with expectancy theory. The findings and future research issues are discussed.     

Behavioral interventions to improve performance in collegiate football

Using a multitreatment withdrawal design, this study evaluated the differential effects of publicly posted plus verbal feedback, goal setting plus verbal feedback, and publicly posted feedback, verbal feedback, and goal setting together on the performance of 3 collegiate football players in practice scrimmages. Also assessed was whether the changes in practice behavior generalized to games. The dependent variables were performances on three wide receiver skills. The results show that public posting with verbal feedback, goal setting, and public posting with verbal feedback and goal setting were effective in improving player performance to a 90% criterion level during practice, and these changes generalized to game performance.     

The dynamics of avoidance goal regulation

An avoidance goal is an undesired state from which a person seeks to distance themselves. Though important for understanding behavior, avoidance goals have received less attention than approach goals. In this paper, we present a dynamic, formal model that provides a framework for describing and predicting the dynamics of avoidance goal regulation. We conduct a series of simulations to examine the dynamic pattern of behavior that emerges from the model when an avoidance goal is pursued in isolation and when an approach goal is also present. Two versions of the model were examined. In the first, the avoidance goal is regulated by a positive feedback loop. In the second, the avoidance goal is regulated by a negative feedback loop. We find that the positive feedback model produces a pattern of runaway behavior, even in a scenario where an approach goal is also present. By contrast, the negative feedback loop model produces a stable pattern of behavior that is more consistent with existing theory. The findings provide an important step toward theoretical parsimony by demonstrating that avoidance goal regulation, like approach goal regulation, can be understood using a negative feedback control system framework. We discuss new insights provided by this model and its potential to spark empirical research.     

ANALYSIS OF WORK GROUP PRODUCTIVITY IN AN APPLIED SETTING: APPLICATION OF A TIME SERIES PANEL DESIGN

We provide a demonstration of a time series panel analysis applied under typical field research conditions characterized by (a) a small number of groups (b) all of which experience an intervention (thus there is no traditional control group), and (c) perform noncomparable tasks. The time series techniques allow a direct test of Naylor, Pritchard, and Ilgen's (1980) theory of behavior in organizations applied to work group productivity in a large-scale study of work groups conducted by Pritchard and colleagues (1989). The responses of 5 work groups to priority scores for 37 indicators of productivity over 23 months were used to predict month-by-month changes in productivity for each of the 37 group products. The results show that group productivity improvements can be explained by feedback including priority scores derived from nonlinear contingency functions of the productivity indicators. Furthermore, groups differed in their response to priority feedback. Goal setting positively affected productivity gain consistently across work groups, after the effects of priority feedback and the interaction of work groups with priority feedback were accounted for. Implications for group performance strategies and appropriate applications of the time series panel analysis are discussed.     

THE IMPORTANCE OF UNION ACCEPTANCE FOR PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT THROUGH GOAL SETTING

Interviews were conducted with union business agents on conditions necessary for their support of a goal setting program. Subsequent to the interviews, goals were assigned to 39 truck drivers. The results were analyzed using a design that included a comparison group ( N = 35). The results showed a significant increase in productivity for the drivers who received specific goals. When the conditions necessary for the union's support of the goal setting program were no longer met, there was a wildcat strike.     

Pilot study testing the effects of a multicomponent intervention for increasing moderate-intensity physical exercise

Physical inactivity has been associated with several health problems, including diabetes, obesity, and heart disease. Although many of these health problems are preventable through regular exercise, a small percentage of the adult population engages in the recommended levels. Reinforcement-based interventions have been implemented successfully to promote physical activity, but studies targeting moderate or vigorous physical exercise using behavior-analytic interventions are scarce. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the feasibility of a multicomponent intervention that provided monetary incentives for increasing running, jogging, or brisk walking distance for five adults. The intervention lasted 6 weeks and comprised weekly goal setting, feedback, public posting, and group contingencies. The results of the study suggest that the intervention may be feasible and effective at increasing moderate physical activity to levels recommended by the federal guidelines, but further research is warranted.     

Effects of participative vs assigned goals and feedback in a multitrial task

A dynamic multitrial perspective on goal setting was adopted in order to investigate the effects of both goals (assigned vs participative) and goal-discrepant performance feedback on subsequent goal commitment and performance. Eighty subjects were initially assigned to either an assigned or participative goal condition, and performed a multitrial task with all subjects receiving goal discrepant performance feedback following the first task trial. Assigned rather than participative goal setting led to higher goal commitment, and large goal/feedback discrepancies led to greater reductions in subsequent goals. Because of these goal changes, the ability of initial goals to predict performance decreased over trials. However, when goal commitment, which reflects revised goals, was also considered, the ability to predict performance actually increased over trials. A moderating effect for need achievement was obtained such that higher-need achievers were more goal committed and performed better under participative goal setting than low-need achievers. Discussion focused on the practical and theoretical importance of a dynamic goal-setting perspective in explaining and predicting responses to goals and feedback systems.     

Teaching minority high school students to recruit helpers to attain personal and educational goals

Recruiting help from mentors and other potential helpers is a promising strategy for helping disadvantaged and minority youths meet their personal and educational goals. Three African-American high school seniors participated in a project designed to evaluate the effectiveness of training procedures that would allow them to ask for help in attaining educational and other personal goals. A behavioral training procedure that included instructional materials, role-play practice, praise, and feedback was used. Targeted skills included goal setting and 30 responses involved in the process of meeting with a potential helper. Role-play situations were used to evaluate participants' help-recruiting skills before and after training. Participants increased their help-recruiting skills from an average of 38% during baseline, to an average of 75% after training. Self-reported measures of goal attainment suggested that the students benefited from the training. Implications for mentoring programs designed to increase minority students' opportunities to reach educational goals were discussed.     

Memory and goal setting: the response of older and younger adults to positive and objective feedback

Earlier research suggested that goal setting for memory does not have the same advantages for older adults as for younger adults. Using ideal goal-setting conditions with individualized goals, the authors compared goals plus positive feedback, goals plus objective feedback, and control. Performance increased over trials and was higher for both goal conditions than for control. The positive feedback condition showed the highest goal commitment and motivation. Older adults showed strong performance gains and more motivation and goal commitment than the young. The results showed that older adults can benefit from goal setting under optimal learning and feedback conditions.     

The Moderating Effect of Performance Feedback and the Mediating Effect of Self-Set Goals on the Primed Goal-Performance Relationship

The effect of feedback and a self-set goal on the relationship between a goal primed in the subconscious and performance were examined in three laboratory experiments and one field experiment (n = 241, 465, 201, 74 respectively), using normative (bogus) and absolute feedback manipulations, and different performance tasks that were coded for both performance quality (i.e. creativity) and quantity. The hypothesis that providing feedback, a moderator in goal setting theory, amplifies the causal effect of a primed goal on performance was supported. Specifically, in experiment 1, participants were randomly assigned to a 2 (prime of effective vs. ineffective performance) × 3 (positive, negative, no feedback) factorial design. The primed goal for effective performance led to higher performance than the negative primed goal. In addition, feedback, regardless of its sign, increased both task and creative performance when a primed goal for effective performance was presented, but did not do so when the goal primed ineffective performance. This effect was replicated in two subsequent laboratory experiments which employed three primed goal conditions (effective/neutral/ineffective). In experiments 2 and 3, a consciously set goal, with no prompting by an experimenter, mediated the relationship between a primed goal and performance when feedback was provided. Experiment 4 provided a conceptual replication in a work setting, involving employees in a customer service department of a large communication company. Finally, a meta-analysis of these four experiments indicated an average effect size of d = 0.36, 95 per cent CI [0.23, 0.49] with no evidence of heterogeneity across the four experiments. These findings suggest that not only are subconscious goals a foundation for the difficulty level of consciously set goals, but in addition subconscious goals and conscious goals work together in affecting performance.     

Do web-based competitions promote physical activity? Randomized controlled trial

ObjectivesIntroducing competitions may inspire positive behaviour change but they tend to be implemented alongside other strategies. Thus, the study examined the effectiveness of a competitive web-based intervention to promote physical activity, disentangled the effects of competition from other behaviour change techniques, and identified underlying mediators.DesignRandomized controlled trial.MethodsPhysically inactive adults living or working in a UK city (n = 281) were recruited. Participants were randomized to one of three web-based conditions: a control group; a group encouraged to self-monitor their steps and who received basic feedback; a group encouraged to self-monitor their steps who received basic feedback plus additional feedback to instigate competition. Participants' physical activity was monitored through pedometers for one-week pre-intervention and for four-weeks during the intervention period. Participants completed the BREQ-2 and measures of intention, planning, goal conflict, goal importance, effort, commitment, perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy pre- and post-intervention.ResultsParticipants in the competition condition increased their steps significantly more than those in the control group with the effect being mediated by increased goal importance, identified motivation and intrinsic motivation. Participants in the competition condition increased their steps more than those in the self-monitoring condition. There was weaker evidence that the self-monitoring group increased their steps more than those in the control condition.ConclusionsSelf-monitoring and feedback can increase physical activity but adding a competitive component, implemented via the web, can boost goal importance, identified motivation and intrinsic motivation that mediate these increases in physical activity.