FN400和LPC对熟悉性和回想的特异性指向分析

双加工理论认为熟悉性和回想是情景记忆的两个独立过程,其重要证据是ERP研究中FN400和LPC可以分别指示熟悉性和回想。但也有研究证明FN400是概念启动和熟悉性共同作用的结果,而LPC也不能准确的反映回想加工,因此,将其作为双加工理论证据的可靠性需进一步讨论。未来需进一步明确概念启动和熟悉性影响FN400的前提条件,并在提高生态效度和控制额外变量的同时明晰LPC的指向性,同时探究熟悉性和回想在再认过程中的具体作用方式。     

语义联系对关联再认神经机制的调节

已有研究显示,关联再认可记录到分别反映双重加工模型的两阶段（即熟悉和回忆）的ERP成分（即FN400和LPC成分）,且具有高语义联系配对的关联再认可通过整合在基于熟悉加工的基础上完成。然而,不同语义联系对关联再认神经机制的影响及单个项目的熟悉和回忆加工的调节作用尚未揭示。为此,本研究比较了主题相关和类别相关图形关联再认的波形波幅异同,并分析了单个项目的熟悉和回忆加工对配对识别的影响。结果显示,主题相关和类别相关条件的旧配对、重组配对和“旧+新”配对均记录到反映熟悉加工的FN400成分,主题相关条件的旧配对、重组配对和“旧+新”配对均记录到反映回忆加工的LPC成分,类别相关条件的旧配对记录到LPC成分。表明关联再认的神经机制受语义联系所调节,单个项目的熟悉程度可影响配对识别时的神经机制,上述结论支持双重加工模型。     

Unitization mitigates interference by intrinsic negative emotion in familiarity and recollection of associative memory: Electrophysiological evidence

Emotion exerts varied influences on memory. While task-relevant item memory is often enhanced by emotion, associative memory is generally impaired. Unitization is known to improve associative memory, but its effects and mechanisms in protecting associative memory from emotional interference are rather obscure. The current study investigated associative memory by employing experimental manipulation of unitization (vs. nonunitization) encoding strategy and stimulus emotion (neutral, intrinsic negative, and extrinsic negative), combined with event-related potential (ERP) signatures of familiarity (FN400 old/new effects) and recollection (parietal late positive component/LPC old/new effects) in memory recognition. Both behavioral and ERP indices of associative recognition from the nonunitization group confirmed emotional interference in associative memory. Importantly, it was primarily intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) emotion that impeded associative memory. Unitization encoding improved memory performance in general, accompanied by enhanced recollection process and induction of familiarity process, which is typically not involved in associative memory recognition and was indeed absent in the nonunitization group. Importantly, unitization helped to preserve behavioral performance (specifically, response speed though not recognition strength) from interference by intrinsic emotion while largely reversed the detriment of intrinsic emotion on ERP indices of familiarity and recollection processes. Interestingly, a synergy between intrinsic emotion and unitization encoding was observed, which could underpin the facilitation of familiarity process in associative recognition of emotional pairs. Overall, current findings highlight interference by intrinsic emotion in associative memory, which is nonetheless responsive to mitigation by unitization encoding.     

Masked repetition priming hinders subsequent recollection but not familiarity: A behavioral and event-related potential study

The present study used the masked repetition priming paradigm in the study phase and the R/K paradigm in the test phase to investigate whether repetition priming can hinder recognition memory and which recognition process (familiarity or recollection) is hindered. Event-related potentials (ERPs) in the study and test phase were recorded to explore the temporal course of how repetition priming hinders subsequent recognition memory and which old/new effect (FN400 or LPC) is affected. Converging behavioral and ERP results indicated that masked repetition priming hindered subsequent recollection but not familiarity. The analysis of ERP priming effects in the study phase indicated that primed words were associated with less negative N400 and less positive LPC compared to unprimed words. The analysis of the priming effect as a function of subsequent memory revealed that only the LPC priming effect was predictive of priming effect on subsequent memory, which suggested that the “prediction-error” account might be a possible explanation of how repetition priming affects subsequent recognition memory.     

语义相似性下回忆和熟悉性的分离

该研究利用事件相关电位技术（ERPs）,采用以汉字为实验材料的学习-再认范式,考察了语义相似性下回忆和熟悉性的分离。本实验结果表明：熟悉性效应主要体现在330-430ms的额区,而回忆效应主要体现在430-600ms的中央区和顶区。本实验在以汉字为实验材料的情况下证明了,早期额区的N400新旧效应反映了熟悉性,晚期顶区LPC新旧效应反映了回忆,从汉语材料的角度,为双加工过程假说提供了新的证据。     

Reversing the picture superiority effect: A speed—accuracy trade-off study of recognition memory

Speed-accuracy trade-off methods have been used to contrast single- and dual-process accounts of recognition memory. With these procedures, subjects are presented with individual test items and required to make recognition decisions under various time constraints. In three experiments, we presented words and pictures to be intentionally learned; test stimuli were always visually presented words. At test, we manipulated the interval between the presentation of each test stimulus and that of a response signal, thus controlling the amount of time available to retrieve target information. The standard picture superiority effect was significant in long response deadline conditions (i.e., > or = 2,000 msec). Conversely, a significant reverse picture superiority effect emerged at short response-signal deadlines (< 200 msec). The results are congruent with views suggesting that both fast familiarity and slower recollection processes contribute to recognition memory. Alternative accounts are also discussed.     

联结再认中双语者第二语言记忆优势效应

研究使用ERPs技术, 考察了双语者在联结再认中是否存在第二语言记忆优势效应。实验要求被试完成维吾尔语(L1)和汉语(L2)两类“学习-测试”任务。学习阶段要求被试学习混合呈现的复合词和无关词, 测验阶段要求被试区分“旧”、“重组”或“新”词对。行为结果发现：(1)复合词中, L2的正确率高于L1, L2的反应时快于L1; 无关词中, L2的正确率与L1无显著差异, 但L2的反应时快于L1。(2) 在L2和L1中, 复合词的正确率均高于无关词, 反应时均快于无关词。ERPs结果发现：(1)在高整合条件下, L2仅诱发了FN400效应, L1诱发了FN400效应和LPC效应; 在低整合条件下, L2和L1都只诱发了LPC效应。(2)在时间进程上, L2和L1分别在650 ms和900 ms完成联结关系的提取。上述结果表明, 在高整合条件下, 双语者在联结再认中存在L2记忆优势。此外, 实验结果也从双语角度证明了, 整合编码能促进熟悉性在维吾尔语联结再认中发挥作用。本研究结果的实践意义在于, 为我国少数民族学生习得国家通用语言文字提供了认知神经科学依据。     

Event-related potentials and recognition memory

According to dual-process models, recognition memory is supported by distinct retrieval processes known as familiarity and recollection. Important evidence supporting the dual-process framework has come from studies using event-related brain potentials (ERPs). These studies have identified two topographically distinct ERP correlates of recognition memory--the "parietal" and "mid-frontal" old/new effects--that are dissociated by variables that selectively modulate recollection and familiarity, respectively. We evaluate the extent to which ERP data support dual-process models in light of the proposal that recollection is a continuous rather than a discrete memory process. We also examine the claim that the putative ERP index of familiarity is a reflection of implicit rather than explicit memory. We conclude that ERP findings continue to offer strong support for the dual-process perspective.     

故事情境下真实记忆与虚假记忆的活动差异

以故事情境为实验材料,采用学习再认实验范式,通过操纵再认靶词与故事情境的关联性考察了情境故事对关联虚假记忆和真实再认神经活动的影响。结果发现：在记忆再认的熟悉性加工和回想性加工阶段,虚假记忆与真实记忆所诱发FN400和LPC成分走向一致;在额叶后提取阶段,虚假再认所诱发的晚慢成分波幅大于真实再认。结果说明：情境性关联虚假记忆与真实记忆表现出相似的熟悉性和回想性加工,但在后期需耗费额外的加工资源进行成功的提取。     

FN400和N400是相同的ERP成分：来自图形材料的证据

本研究通过比较记忆编码阶段语义启动引起的N400效应和提取阶段熟悉性引起的FN400效应的地形图考察图形材料诱发的N400和FN400是否是相同的ERP成分。实验结果发现,语义启动引起的N400效应和熟悉性引起的FN400效应的地形图没有显著差异。这说明图形材料诱发的FN400和N400是相同的ERP成分,两者都反映了语义加工。本研究为FN400效应反映了语义启动而不是熟悉性的观点提供了新的实验证据。     

双加工再认提取中的情绪记忆增强效应

根据双加工理论, 再认提取可以划分为两种不同的加工：熟悉性与回想。以往的研究普遍认为情绪对再认提取具有增强效应, 但是情绪对再认记忆中两种不同加工方式(熟悉性与回想)的增强效应的神经机制尚存争议。本研究以ERP作为测量手段, 采用修正的“记得/知道”范式对情绪图片进行再认测验, 旨在探究在学习?测验间隔较长的条件下, 情绪信息如何对熟悉性与回想产生增强效应。在行为结果中, 对于知道判断, 情绪图片的记忆表现显著高于中性图片, 情绪效价间没有差异; 对于记得判断, 负性情绪图片的记忆表现要显著高于正性与中性图片。在ERP数据上, 对于知道判断, 情绪图片的FN400新旧效应有增强作用。对于记得判断, 负性图片的LPC的新旧效应波幅显著高于中性与负性图片; 而正性图片的LPC新旧效应增强作用不显著。以上证据表明：学习?测验间隔较长的情况下, 熟悉性再认提取中, 情绪记忆增强效应主要体现在情绪唤醒对记忆强度的提高, 而不仅仅体现在情绪效价对熟悉判断反应倾向的影响。在回想的再认提取中, 情绪效价的调节占据主导地位, 负性情绪图片有显著的情绪记忆增强效应; 正性情绪图片则不具有增强效应。     

An electrophysiological comparison of visual categorization and recognition memory

Object categorization emphasizes the similarities that bind exemplars into categories, whereas recognition memory emphasizes the specific identification of previously encountered exemplars. Mathematical modeling has highlighted similarities in the computational requirements of these tasks, but neuropsychological research has suggested that categorization and recognition may depend on separate brain systems. Following training with families of novel visual shapes (blobs), event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded during both categorization and recognition tasks. ERPs related to early visual processing (N1, 156–200 msec) were sensitive to category membership. Middle latency ERPs (FN400 effects, 300–500 msec) were sensitive to both category membership and old/new differences. Later ERPs (parietal effects, 400–800 msec) were primarily affected by old/new differences. Thus, there was a temporal transition so that earlier processes were more sensitive to categorical discrimination and later processes were more sensitive to recognition-related discrimination. Aspects of these results are consistent with both mathematical modeling and neuropsychological perspectives.     

Impact of intention on the ERP correlates of face recognition

The present study investigated the impact of study-test similarity on face recognition by manipulating, in the same experiment, the expression change (same vs. different) and the task-processing context (inclusion vs. exclusion instructions) as within-subject variables. Consistent with the dual-process framework, the present results showed that participants performed better on the inclusion task than on the exclusion task, with no response bias. A mid-frontal FN400 old/new effect and a parietal old/new effect were found in both tasks. However, modulations of the ERP old/new effects generated by the expression change on recognized faces differed across tasks. The modulations of the ERP old/new effects were proportional to the degree of matching between the study face and the recognition face in the inclusion task, but not in the exclusion task. The observed modulation of the FN400 old/new effect by the task instructions when familiarity and conceptual priming were kept constant indicates that these early ERP correlates of recognition depend on voluntary task-related control. The present results question the idea that FN400 reflects implicit memory processes such as conceptual priming and show that the extent to which the FN400 discriminates between conditions depends on the retrieval orientation at test. They are discussed in relation to recent controversies about the ERP correlates of familiarity in face recognition. This study suggests that while both conceptual and perceptual information can contribute to the familiarity signal reflected by the FN400 effect, their relative contributions vary with the task demands.     

Identifying the Basis for the Word Frequency Effect in Recognition Memory

Abstract

Recent theories of recognition memory have identified two bases on which recognition-memory judgments may be made: recollection, which involves retrieval of contextual information from an earlier episode of stimulus presentation; and familiarity, which is distinguished by a general sense of familiarity in the absence of recollection. Four experiments were conducted to test whether the word frequency effect (WFE) in recognition memory (superior performance with low- in comparison with high-frequency targets) results from recollection-based processes, familiarity-based processes, or both. In two of the experiments, superior memory for aspects of the study context was found for low-frequency in comparison with high-frequency words, suggesting frequency-related differences in recollection. The other two experiments used Jacoby's (1991) inclusion/exclusion paradigm to provide estimates of the contribution of recollection and familiarity to recognition. In both experiments the data suggested that the WFE is primarily a recollection-based phenomenon. These findings suggest that the recognition memory WFE for old items results primarily from the effects of word frequency on recollection. The implications of these findings for theories of recognition memory are discussed.     

不同情绪背景下来源记忆的ERPs研究*

使用事件相关电位(ERP)技术和测试来源记忆的多键范式,探讨不同情绪效价背景下来源提取的认知神经机制。学习阶段,同时呈现汉字和3种效价情绪图片(重叠);测验阶段,只呈现汉字,要求被试进行四键判断：旧字且背景为中性,旧字且背景为正性,旧字且背景为负性,新字。结果发现：在提取阶段,刺激呈现后300~500 ms,3种情绪背景下来源判断正确项目和来源判断错误项目都比新项目诱发了更正的ERPs(即都存在新旧效应),这一结果反映出刺激呈现后300~500 ms 是一个早期的项目提取阶段,它独立于来源提取。并且,在中性背景下,两种新旧效应没有差别;而在正性和负性背景下,来源判断正确项目的新旧效应显著大于来源判断错误项目。说明相比于中性背景,情绪背景下被试可能更早对来源信息产生熟悉感。在500~650 ms,3种情绪背景下都存在来源判断正确项目的新旧效应,在来源判断错误项目和新项目之间没有显著差异,来源正确与来源错误有显著的新旧效应差异,但二者在头皮分布上是类似的,这反映了晚期的来源提取过程。同时来源正确的新旧效应在这两个时段有显著不同的头皮分布,表明这两个时段有不同加工过程。另外,在500~650 ms,存在显著的情绪效应,正性背景下正确判断来源诱发的ERPs比中性和负性背景下的更正,而且来源判断错误条件下没有情绪效应。综上所述,来源正确和来源错误可能仅仅反映了大脑激活在量上的不同,并不能推断两者存在质的差异;大脑神经活动的早期不仅反映了对记忆项目的熟悉性,而且也受情绪效应的影响,500 ms之后大脑神经活动反映的是对记忆项目回想的过程,这一回想过程也与情绪效应有关,受到情绪效应的调节。     

Directed forgetting in direct and indirect tests of memory: Seeking evidence of retrieval inhibition using electrophysiological measures

We investigated whether directed forgetting as elicited by the item-cueing method results solely from differential rehearsal of to-be-remembered vs. to-be-forgotten words or, additionally, from inhibitory processes that actively impair retrieval of to-be-forgotten words. During study, participants (N = 24) were instructed to remember half of a series of presented words (TBR) and to forget the other half (TBF), as indicated by an instruction cue shown shortly after each word. During test, accuracy and reaction time measures from lexical decisions (indirect memory test) followed by recognition-memory judgements (direct memory test) were supplemented with event-related potential (ERP) recordings. Results from the behavioural measures revealed directed forgetting in the recognition-memory test but not the lexical-decision test. ERPs obtained during recognition indicated that TBR words elicited a larger parietal old/new effect than TBF words overall, suggesting that remember/forget instructions impaired conscious recollection processes more severely than familiarity processes. Moreover, TBF words that were successfully forgotten elicited less parietal activity than correctly rejected new words (the reversed old/new effect; Nowicka, A., Jednorórog, K., Wypych, M., & Marchewka, A. (2009). Reversed old/new effect for intentionally forgotten words: An ERP study of directed forgetting. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71, 97–102). This was taken to implicate that inhibitory processes likely affected these items. Enhanced negativities for successfully forgotten TBF words relative to new words were observed in the lexical-decision task at early (150–250 ms) and late (800–1000 ms) time windows, suggesting that inhibitory influences disrupt more than just conscious recollection when memory retrieval is tested indirectly.     

Familiarity is related to conceptual implicit memory: An examination of individual differences

Explicit memory is thought to be distinct from implicit memory. However, growing evidence has indicated that explicit familiarity-based recognition memory judgments rely on the same process that supports conceptual implicit memory. We tested this hypothesis by examining individual differences using a paradigm wherein we measured both familiarity and conceptual implicit memory within the same participants. In Experiments 1a and 1b, we examined recognition memory confidence ROCs and remember/know responses, respectively, to estimate recollection and familiarity, and used a free association task to measure conceptual implicit memory. The results demonstrated that, across participants, familiarity, but not recollection, was significantly correlated with conceptual priming. In contrast, in Experiment 2, utilizing a similar paradigm, a comparison of recognition memory ROCs and explicit associative cued-recall performance indicated that cued recall was related to both recollection and familiarity. These results are consistent with models assuming that familiarity-based recognition and conceptual implicit memory rely on similar underlying processes.     

Memory conjunction errors: The effects of presentation duration and study repetition

The memory-strengthening manipulations of increased presentation duration and increased number of times items were presented were manipulated in the memory conjunction paradigm. Participants viewed parent words once or three times during the study portion of the experiment for 250 ms, 1000 ms, or 3000 ms. After an old/new recognition test participants were asked to give explanations for their answers from the recognition test. The results of true and false recognition as well as recall-to-reject responses (e.g., I know I did not see blackbird since I saw blackmail) indicated that both familiarity and recollection were influenced by the memory-strengthening manipulations. The results provide evidence for dual-process theories of recognition memory and the opposing processes of familiarity and recollection.     

ROC in animals: Uncovering the neural substrates of recollection and familiarity in episodic recognition memory

It is a consensus that familiarity and recollection contribute to episodic recognition memory. However, it remains controversial whether familiarity and recollection are qualitatively distinct processes supported by different brain regions, or whether they reflect different strengths of the same process and share the same support. In this review, I discuss how adapting standard human recognition memory paradigms to rats, performing circumscribed brain lesions and using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) methods contributed to solve this controversy. First, I describe the validation of the animal ROC paradigms and report evidence that familiarity and recollection are distinct processes in intact rats. Second, I report results from rats with hippocampal dysfunction which confirm this finding and lead to the conclusion that the hippocampus supports recollection but not familiarity. Finally, I describe a recent study focusing on the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) that investigates the contribution of areas upstream of the hippocampus to recollection and familiarity.     

Semantic relations differentially impact associative recognition memory: Electrophysiological evidence

Though associative recognition memory is thought to rely primarily on recollection, recent research indicates that familiarity might also make a substantial contribution when to-be-learned items are integrated into a coherent structure by means of an existing semantic relation. It remains unclear how different types of semantic relations, such as categorical (e.g., dancer–singer) and thematic (e.g., dancer–stage) relations might affect associative recognition, however. Using event-related potentials (ERPs), we addressed this question by manipulating the type of semantic link between paired words in an associative recognition memory experiment. An early midfrontal old/new effect, typically linked to familiarity, was observed across the relation types. In contrast, a robust left parietal old/new effect was found in the categorical condition only, suggesting a clear contribution of recollection to associative recognition for this kind of pairs. One interpretation of this pattern is that familiarity was sufficiently diagnostic for associative recognition of thematic relations, which could result from the integrative nature of the thematic relatedness compared to the similarity-based nature of categorical pairs. The present study suggests that the extent to which recollection and familiarity are involved in associative recognition is at least in part determined by the properties of semantic relations between the paired associates.