Mother, child, and situational correlates of toddlers' social competence

Mother, child, and situational correlates of toddlers' social competence in the second year were investigated in a sample of 24 children (11 girls, 13 boys). At 12 months, children's temperament (perceived difficulty) was assessed by questionnaire. Between 14 and 17 months, the children's everyday interaction experiences (maternal responsiveness and involvement) were observed at home. At 24 months, the children's social competence (responsiveness, use of social resources) and the quality of maternal behavior (responsiveness, availability) were assessed in a laboratory play room. The children's social competence was positively related to the contemporary (24 months) as well as the preceding (during the second year) maternal behavior. High-quality maternal behavior during the second year was associated with the child's low perceived difficulty at 12 months. Relationships between child and mother behavior particularly occurred in situations providing some challenge to the child.     

Parenting and Conduct Problems: Moderation by Child Empathy

Child empathy was examined as a moderator of the relations between positive and negative parenting behavior and child conduct problems. Participants were 56 mother-child dyads (child age M?=?10.8 years; 64 % male) and children were recruited with a range of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Parenting was assessed by direct observations of mothers’ praise and criticism during parent–child interactions and child empathy was measured with mother report. Child conduct problems were assessed via observation and mother-report measures, and a composite variable was created. In regression analyses, child ADHD symptoms were uniquely related to child conduct problems. Second, as hypothesized, child empathy moderated the relations between parenting and conduct problems. Mother praise was negatively related to child conduct problems at lower levels of child empathy, but this relation was not significant at higher levels of child empathy. On the contrary, mother criticism was positively related to child conduct problems at high levels of child empathy, but this relation was not significant at low levels of empathy. The results suggest that different types of parenting behavior may be differentially beneficial to children, depending on their level of empathy.     

Dyadic parent-child interaction during early childhood: contributions of parental and child personality traits

Individual differences in personality play a major role for functioning in a multitude of important life domains, including one's interpersonal relationships. The present study examined the effects of parental personality and child temperament traits on dyadic parent-child interaction during early childhood. Participants were a community sample of 145 mothers, 145 fathers, and their 3- to 6-year-old children. Child traits were assessed using standardized laboratory paradigms, parents reported on their own traits, and parent-child interaction was assessed observationally. Parental positive emotionality, negative emotionality, and constraint subtraits were related to parental responsiveness; the number and type of parental bids and the quality of parental responsiveness were also a function of child positive emotionality and effortful control subtraits and, for mothers, child negative emotionality subtraits. Child traits were related to their own interaction behaviors; children higher on positive emotionality subtraits made more social bids, and children higher on effortful control subtraits made more influence attempts and fewer negative bids; child positive emotionality and effortful control subtraits were associated with higher quality child responsiveness. Findings speak to coherence in personality constructs across the life span, with comparable traits measured in adults and early childhood-aged children demonstrating remarkably consistent effects on dyadic interaction behavior.     

Infant–mother and infant–father synchrony: The coregulation of positive arousal

To examine the coregulation of positive affect during mother–infant and father–infant interactions, 100 couples and their first‐born child were videotaped in face‐to‐face interactions. Parents' and infant's affective states were coded in one‐second frames, and synchrony was measured with time‐series analysis. The orientation, intensity, and temporal pattern of infant positive arousal were assessed. Synchrony between same‐gender parent–infant dyads was more optimal in terms of stronger lagged associations between parent and infant affect, more frequent mutual synchrony, and shorter lags to responsiveness. Infants' arousal during mother–infant interaction cycled between medium and low levels, and high positive affect appeared gradually and was embedded within a social episode. During father–child play, positive arousal was high, sudden, and organized in multiple peaks that appeared more frequently as play progressed. Mother–infant synchrony was linked to the partners' social orientation and was inversely related to maternal depression and infant negative emotionality. Father–child synchrony was related to the intensity of positive arousal and to father attachment security. Results contribute to research on the regulation of positive emotions and describe the unique modes of affective sharing that infants coconstruct with mother and father. ©2003 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Child–Mother Attachment Security and Child Characteristics as Joint Contributors to Young Children's Coping in a Challenging Situation

Moderate challenges provide opportunities for young children to develop coping skills, yet little is known about factors related to individual differences in early coping. This study investigated child–mother attachment security (9‐point rating) assessed via a modified Strange Situation procedure, child expressive language, and child social fearfulness as contributors to coping responses among 33‐month‐old children (N = 128, 66 girls) following receipt of an empty gift box. Associations between child–mother attachment security and child coping were moderated by child characteristics. As hypothesized, greater attachment security was associated with more action towards the stressor (i.e. vocalizing about the empty box and searching for the missing gift), but only for children high on social fearfulness. Further, greater attachment security was associated with seeking more physical proximity to mothers for children low on expressive language and less physical proximity for children high on expressive language. Lastly, greater attachment security was related to more self‐distraction for children with moderate to high expressive language. Results are discussed in terms of child–mother attachment security as a psychological resource constructed over time, which the child may draw upon when confronted with a moderate non‐attachment‐related stressor. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Shared Affect and Dyadic Synchrony Among Secure and Insecure Parent–Toddler Dyads

The present investigation explored the role of shared affect in parent–child dyadic synchrony during toddlerhood and examined if patterns of dyadic synchrony and shared affect differ for secure and insecure parent–child dyads. Data were collected from 128 families with toddler age children (67 girls and 61 boys) during a laboratory assessment. Mother–toddler and father–toddler interactions were coded for shared positive and negative affect, as well as dyadic synchrony. Attachment status was assessed using the Strange Situation. Data revealed that securely attached parent–toddler dyads spent more time in synchronous interaction, and less time in asynchronous interaction, than insecurely attached parent–toddler dyads. Parent–toddler synchronous interaction among both securely and insecurely attached dyads was characterized by shared positive affect. Among insecure dyads, shared negative affect was more predominate in asynchronous than in synchronous interaction. The role of individual differences in the manifestation of synchronous interaction among securely and insecurely attached parent–toddler dyads is discussed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A new measure for dispositional optimism and pessimism in young children

We describe here a new test for dispositional optimism and pessimism in young children, the Parent‐rated Life Orientation Test of children (the PLOT) and assess its psychometric properties. Two hundred and twenty one mother–father pairs rated their children's (mean age = 8.1, SD = 0.3 years) dispositional optimism and pessimism using a new scale, the PLOT, including four optimism and four pessimism items. We associated the PLOT with parent‐rated self‐esteem (Behavioral Rating Scale of Presented Self‐Esteem in Young Children), social competence (Social Competence and Behaviour Evaluation Scale, the SCBE‐30), psychiatric symptoms (Child Behaviour Checklist, the CBCL) and temperament (Children's Behaviour Questionnaire, the CBQ) of the child. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the mother‐ and father‐rated PLOT revealed a significantly better fit for a two‐ over a one‐factor solution (p < 0.001). The optimism and pessimism subscales displayed good reliabilities, inter‐parental agreement and modest to moderate associations, in the expected direction, with the measures of self‐esteem, social competence, temperament and behaviour problems. To conclude, the PLOT shows good construct and convergent validity and reliability. The findings encourage its use to assess early emerging generalized expectancies of positive and negative outcomes in young children. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pivotal behavior as the mediator of the relationship between parental responsiveness and children's symbolic behavior

Previous research with parents and children with developmental disabilities indicated that the relationship between mothers’ responsive style of interaction and children's rate of development was mediated by the simultaneous relationship between mothers’ responsiveness and children's social engagement, or pivotal behavior. In this study, we attempted to determine whether children's pivotal behavior might also mediate the relationship between responsiveness and child development in a sample of 165 typically developing toddlers and their Taiwanese parents. Child development was assessed with a parent report measure of children's symbolic behavior. Parental responsiveness and children's pivotal behavior were assessed from observations of parent–child play. Results indicated that parental responsiveness was correlated with children's pivotal behavior, and that both of these variables were correlated with children's symbolic behavior. Structural equation models indicated that the relationship between responsiveness and children's symbolic behavior was fully mediated by children's pivotal behavior.     

Parental play styles and sibling interaction during a problem‐solving task

Associations between parental play styles and sibling interaction were investigated in 30 same‐sex preschool‐ and school‐aged sibling dyads (first‐borns were 4–9 years, M=6.6 years; second‐borns were 2–7 years, M=4.2 years), divided into older and younger sibling groups. Participants completed puzzles under three conditions: (a) siblings alone, (b) together with mother, and (c) together with father. Prosocial and agonistic sibling‐directed behaviors and positive and negative parent–child behaviors were coded. Siblings engaged in both more prosocial and agonistic interactions when alone than with either parent; there were no differences in sibling interactions in the mother versus father episodes. Paternal negative behavior was associated with sibling agonistic behavior when the children were alone, indicating second‐order effects, however, mother–child and sibling interactions were not significantly associated. Nevertheless, reciprocity in positive and negative behaviors directed by children to parents and vice versa was evident, demonstrating synchrony in patterns of exchanges. The findings underscore the necessity of studying both parents in order to understand more fully the dynamics involved in family relationships. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Late Adoptions: Attachment Security and Emotional Availability in Mother–Child and Father–Child Dyads

A growing body of research suggests that a history of neglect, abuse and institutionalization can negatively affect late-adopted children’s attachment representations, and that adoptive parents can play a key role in enabling adopted children to earn secure attachments. Still, only a few studies have explored the quality of caregiver–child interaction in adoptive families. The present study aimed at verifying both the concordance of attachment in adoptive dyads (mother–children and father–children) and the relationship between attachment representations and parent–child interaction. The research involved 20 adoptive families in which the child’s arrival had occurred between 12 to 36 months before the assessment, and where children were aged between 4.5 and 8.5 years. Attachment was assessed through the Adult Attachment Interview for parents and through the Manchester Child Attachment Story Task for children. The emotional quality of parent–child interaction was assessed trough the Emotional Availability Scales. Our results pointed out the presence of a relation between attachment representations of late-adopted children and their adoptive mothers (75%, K?=?0.50, p?=?.025). In addition, we found that both insecure children and mothers showed lower levels of EA than secure ones. Some explanations are presented about why, in the early post-adoption period, child attachment patterns and dyadic emotional availability seem to be arranged on different frameworks for the two parental figures.     

Preterm behavior,maternal adjustment,and competencies in the newborn period: What influence do they have at 12 months postnatal age?

This article examines whether preterm newborns' behavior and their mother's adjustment to the premature birth and infant hospitalization have an influence on subsequent infant development and behavior, maternal adjustment, and mother–infant relationship. The behavioral competencies of 42 well, singleton preterm infants (mean gestational age=31 weeks) were assessed, as were their mothers' adjustment (depression and coping) and competencies (knowledge of child development). At 12 months of postnatal age, child competencies (development and behavior) were assessed, together with maternal adjustment (parenting stress and depression). Mother–infant interaction also was observed. Regression analyses indicated that in the newborn period, maternal positive reappraisal and a planful coping style, more knowledge of child development, and previous experience with baby‐sitting were associated with better infant development (p=.002), maternal adjustment (p=.012), and mother–child relationship (p=.002) at 12 months. Newborn infant muscle‐tone maturity was predictive of better motor quality at 12 months (p=.011), and being a firstborn infant who was more sleepy and drowsy was associated with subsequent higher maternal parenting stress (p=.007). Social and educational support groups combined with an approach that assists mothers to develop problem‐solving coping styles may have a beneficial influence on infant development.     

Responsiveness in mother-infant social interactions among immigrant and nonmigrant families: Japanese,South Korean,South American,and European American

A culture learning perspective motivated the present study of the acculturation of responsiveness in mother-infant interactions. Several conceptual and analytic features of responsiveness in mother-infant social interactions were examined: Temporal contingency, mean differences in responsiveness among and within dyads, attunement of mother and infant responsiveness withing dyads, and the influence of acculturation on individual responsiveness. Methodologically, acculturation was assessed at group and individual levels in immigrant Japanese, South Korean, and South American dyads in comparison with nonmigrant dyads in their respective cultures of origin (Japan, South Korea, and South America) and their single common culture of destination (United States). In total, 408 mothers and their 5½-month-old infants were observed in the naturalistic setting of the home, and observations were coded for mothers’ speech to infant, social play, and encouraging her infant to look at her, and infants’ looking at mother and nondistress vocalizations. Odds ratios were then generated for mother and infant responsiveness in four types of social interactions: Mother speaks to infant and infant looks at mother (Mother Speak/Infant Attend), mother plays with infant and infant looks at mother (Mother Play/Infant Attend), mother plays with infant and infant vocalizes (Mother Play/Infant Vocalize), and mother encourages infant to look at her and infant vocalizes (Mother Encourage/Infant Vocalize). Five key findings emerged. Specifically, mother and infant responsiveness in Mother Speak/Infant Attend interactions were temporally contingent in all cultures. Mean differences in responsiveness among cultures emerged, and within dyads infants were more responsive than their mothers in Mother Speak/Infant Attend interactions. Mother and infant responsiveness in Mother Speak/Infant Attend interactions were attuned in all cultures. Responsiveness in Mother Play/Infant Vocalize interactions showed acculturation effects at the individual level. Implications of these findings for understanding the development of responsiveness in social interactions and acculturation in immigrant families are discussed.     

Antecedents of mirror self‐recognition of toddlers: Emotional availability,birth order,and gender

The present study employed a longitudinal design for examining the role of emotional availability of child–mother dyads, birth order of children, and their gender as determinants of mirror self‐recognition of toddlers. It was hypothesized that toddlers who maintained more optimal emotional availability with mother at the age of 12 months would tend to identify themselves more readily at the age of 20 months. We assumed further that first‐born children and females would identify themselves more readily than males and younger siblings. A sample of 54 nonrisk children and their mothers was investigated. Path analysis model showed that emotional availability partly predicted self‐recognition: responsive toddlers identified themselves more often than less responsive peers. No significant effects were found for the other scales of emotional availability. A nonlinear birth order effect was observed, with second‐born children being less likely to show mirror self‐recognition than first‐borns or third‐borns. Child gender was not significantly associated with self‐recognition at the age of 20 months. The data showed further that birth order was significantly linked with components of emotional availability. No significant correlations were found between emotional availability scores and child gender. Results were discussed in light of the different components of emotional availability, and the psychological correlates of ordinal position in the family. ©2002 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Mother–child interaction on video compared with infant observation: Is five minutes enough time for assessment?

In this small‐scale preliminary study, we compared the correlation between assessments based on short videorecordings and infant observation. Five mother–infant dyads were assessed when the child was 1 year of age according to the Parent–Child Early Relational Assessment method (PCERA, 65 items) developed by Roseanne Clark (1985), using both observations covering 1 year and a 5‐min videorecording. The agreement between two video raters was sufficient (κ = 0.41–1.00 or proportion of agreement: 4/5–5/5) in 54 items. In 42 (78%) of these items, there was at least moderate agreement (κ = 0.41–1.00 or proportion of agreement 4/5–5/5), and in another 7 (13%) items fair (κ = 0.21–0.40 or proportion of agreement 3/5) agreement between the video and observation ratings, and both methods revealed the areas of strength and areas of concern of the dyads. Only a few items describing negative interactive style were assessed as identifying concern, but such items identified the dyad which was assessed to have the most constant problems. Most items describing positive interactive style and identifying the areas of concern in the interactive style according to both observation and video assessment were connected with the parental and dyadic engagement in the interaction. Five items with slight or poor (κ ≤ 0.20 or proportion of agreement 1/5–2/5) agreement between video rater and observer gave rise to questions about how the videorecording situation affected the behavior of the dyads, and about the limits of assessment methods and assessment of dyads with children of different ages and dyads from different cultures. ©2005 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

A randomized controlled trial of mother–infant psychoanalytic treatment: I. Outcomes on self‐report questionnaires and external ratings

Mother–infant relationship disturbances occur in three domains: maternal distress, infant functional problems, and relationship difficulties. They constitute common clinical problems. In Sweden, they are usually handled by nurses as part of public Child Health Centre care. Severe cases are referred to child psychiatry services. This randomized controlled trial compared two groups of mother–infant dyads in a Stockholm sample. One received only Child Health Centre care (the “CHCC” group) while the other received mother–infant psychoanalytic treatment plus CHCC (the “MIP” group). Eighty dyads of mothers and infants under 1½ years of age where the mothers had serious concerns about themselves in their role as mothers, their infants' well‐being, or the mother–baby relationship were randomly selected for either the MIP or the CHCC group. The primary outcomes were mother‐reported depression, mother‐reported infant functional problems, and interviewer‐based relationship assessments, all at 6 months after joining the project. Secondary outcomes were mother‐reported stress and general psychic distress, externally rated video‐recorded interactions, and the consumption of healthcare at the CHC, again all after 6 months. Intent‐to‐treat analyses of Treatment × Time effects significantly favored MIP treatment for maternal depression, mother–infant relationships, and maternal sensitivity. Effects were nearly significant on maternal stress, but nonsignificant on mother‐reported infant functional problems, general psychic distress, maternal interactive structuring and nonintrusiveness, infant responsiveness and involvement, and healthcare consumption. MIP treatment improved mother–infant relationships and maternal sensitivity and depression, all of which are known to influence child development. If effects persist and are reproduced, MIP treatment holds promise for more widespread use.     

Video interaction guidance inviting transcendence of postpartum depressed mothers' self‐centered state and holding behavior

By sometimes evoking self‐absorbed and avoidance behaviors in new mothers, postnatal depression affects the quality of mother–infant interaction, which in turn may invoke distress and avoidance in the infant and cause even more lasting impairment in the child's development. Three depressed mothers, A, B, and C, are reported upon after having been offered counseling in accordance with the Marte Meo approach through jointly watching with the therapist video replays of themselves interacting with their newborns. Clinical vignettes are offered which indicate how empathic and positive support of a sensitive therapist can be helpful in inviting the mother's recognition of her importance to her infant and facilitating mutually gratifying interaction between mother and child. Protocol analyses of select sessions of video‐related therapy reveal that two of the mothers sometimes complete the therapist's unfinished statements in an other‐centered manner, thereby transcending their initial self‐centered state. This is most dramatic in the case of Mother A, who starts out in the first session almost incapable of speech, merely nodding or shaking her head. In addition to other indications of improved mother–infant interaction, comparison of pre‐ and postguidance windows regarding the three mothers' holding behaviors reveals a shift from an avoidance or anxious stance to closer and more secure holding.     

2岁幼儿移情反应的特点:与自发帮助、气质、亲子互动的关系

1引言 在儿童早期的社会发展中,社会情绪及其相应的社会行为发展最为关键。由社会动因驱使的人际互动行为,如爱抚、安全、舒适等需要的满足将导致社会情绪状态的重组和发展。在诸多的社会情绪中,移情能力的发展对于幼儿来说尤为重要。移情是对另一个人产生同感的情感反应（Hoffman,2003）,它是一种复杂的情绪沟通能力,是在条件反射基础上,在人际互动过程中,通过模仿、强化逐渐形成的。     

MATERNAL DEPRESSION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTION AND BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN HEAD START: INDIRECT EFFECTS THROUGH PARENTING

The present study used a large, nationally representative sample of Head Start children (N=3,349) from the Family and Child Experiences Survey of 2009 (FACES) to examine associations among maternal depression (measured when children were ?36 months old) and children's executive function (EF) and behavior problems (measured when children were ?48 months old). Preliminary analyses revealed that 36% of mothers in the sample had clinically significant levels of depressive symptoms. Furthermore, a path analysis with demographic controls showed a mediation effect that was significant and quite specific; mother‐reported warmth (and not mother–child reading) mediated the path between maternal depression, children's EF, and behavior problems. Findings provide empirical support for a family process model in which warm, sensitive parenting supports children's emerging self‐regulation and reduces the likelihood of early onset behavior problems in families in which children are exposed to maternal depression.     

Consistency in infant sleeping arrangements and mother–infant interaction

This study examined the association between infant sleeping arrangements (i.e., habitual co‐sleeping, inconsistent co‐sleeping, and non‐co‐sleeping) and quality of mother–infant interaction during play in a sample of mothers, each with a typically developing infant (N=70). Mother–infant dyads who experienced consistency in infant sleeping arrangements in a typical week at 6 months (i.e., habitual co‐sleeping or non‐co‐sleeping) were characterized by more positive maternal and infant behavior and dyadic quality of interaction at 9 months compared with dyads who experienced inconsistency in sleeping arrangements. Additionally, a greater amount of co‐sleeping per week was associated with an increased duration of breastfeeding, mothers working fewer hours, less infant temperamental intensity, and less maternal depression. This study underscores the advantages of empirically based studies that consider consistency in infant sleep experience as a factor that is associated with more positive mother–child interaction.