Gender differences in the interrelationships between weight dissatisfaction,restraint, and self-esteem

This study investigated the interrelationships between weight, weight dissatisfaction, restraint, and self-esteem in a group of young adult women and men. The subjects were students at the Flinders University of South Australia, whose student body consists of primarily local students from English-speaking backgrounds. A tentative causal model proposed actual overweight to lead to body dissatisfaction, which causes the person to diet, with the resulting failures leading to loss of self-esteem. This model was confirmed by path analysis for women, but not for men. In line with self-concept theory, subjective overweight was more strongly related to self-esteem for women than for men, with restraint mediating this relationship.This research was supported by an Australian Research Council Grant.     

Weighing in on risk factors for body dissatisfaction: a one-year prospective study of middle-adolescent girls

Body dissatisfaction is a common problem among adolescent girls that is linked to serious outcomes, including the development of eating disorders. This study tested to what degree five theorized risk factors (weight-related teasing, thin-ideal internalization, body mass index [BMI], self-esteem, and perfectionism) predicted prospective changes in body dissatisfaction. At baseline, 393 10th and 11th grade girls (M = 15.8 years) completed questionnaires and had their height and weight measured. One year later, 316 participants’ body dissatisfaction was reassessed (80.4% retention). Results suggested that self-esteem was the most potent risk factor, followed by BMI, when used to categorize girls into high- and low-risk groups for body dissatisfaction at follow-up. However, weight-related teasing, thin-ideal internalization, and perfectionism did not prove to be risk factors. These results suggest self-esteem and BMI are relevant variables for helping to identify middle-adolescent girls who may be at risk for subsequent increases in body dissatisfaction.     

The Effects of Weight and Achievement Messages on the Self-Esteem of Women

We examined whether priming achievement causes lower self-esteem and more negative mood in women who believe they are overweight and 0whether it does so by increasing women's dissatisfaction with their bodies or with their performance. Thirty-five self-perceived overweight women and 43 self-perceived normal weight women participated in the experiment. Half of the women read a message stressing the importance of achievement pursuits, and the other half read a message stressing the importance of nonachievement pursuits. All women then completed a measure of global self-esteem, read a message about the negative effects of being overweight, and completed several dependent measures. Controlling for initial self-esteem, overweight women who read the achievement prime had lower mood and global self-esteem and lower performance self-esteem but not lower appearance self-esteem or greater body dissatisfaction when compared to the overweight women who read the nonachievement prime and the normal weight women regardless of prime type.     

青少年身体不满意与自杀意念的关系:一个有调节的中介模型

为考察青少年对身体的满意度和自杀意念的关系，探讨自尊是否在青少年身体不满意和自杀意念的关系中起中介作用，以及这个过程是否受到友谊质量的调节作用。采用身体不满意量表、自杀意念量表、自尊量表和友谊质量量表对来自湖北、安徽、河南、吉林四省六所高中的802名高一学生进行调查，结果显示：（1）身体不满意对自杀意念具有显著的正向预测作用；（2）自尊在身体不满意和自杀意念的关系中起部分中介作用；（3）友谊质量在身体不满意通过自尊影响自杀意念的中介模型后半段起调节作用，即在友谊质量较低的青少年中，自尊对自杀意念的影响更大。因此，青少年身体不满意和自杀意念之间存在有调节的中介效应。     

Prospective predictors of body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls and boys: a five-year longitudinal study

This study investigated prospective risk factors for increases in body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls and boys in the Eating Among Teens Project. At the time of first assessment (Time 1), participants were a cohort of early adolescent girls (N=440) and boys (N=366) and a cohort of middle adolescent girls (N=946) and boys (N=764). Participants were followed up 5 years later (Time 2). Potential prospective risk factors examined included body mass index, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, parent dieting environment, peer environment, and psychological factors. Predictors of Time 2 body dissatisfaction were Time 1 body dissatisfaction, body mass index, socioeconomic status, being African American, friend dieting and teasing, self-esteem, and depression. However, the profile of predictors differed across the samples.     

Eating behaviour, body image, and self-esteem of adolescent girls in Malaysia

This cross-sectional study was undertaken with 489 secondary school girls, ages 15-17 years, to examine disordered eating behaviours of adolescent girls in Malaysia and to estimate associations with body weight, body-size discrepancy, and self-esteem. Dietary restraint, binge eating, body image, and self-esteem were assessed using the Restrained Eating scale of the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, the Binge Scale Questionnaire, the Contour Drawing Rating Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, respectively. Pearson correlations estimated associations between variables. There were 3.1% underweight, 9.8% at risk of being overweight, and 8.6% overweight girls. A total of 87.3% were dissatisfied with their own body size. Dietary restraint and binge eating were reported by 36.0% and 35.4%, respectively. Body Mass Index (r = .34, p < .01) and body-size dissatisfaction (r = .24, p < .01) were significantly associated with dietary restraint and binge eating, but self-esteem (r = -.20, p < .001) was significantly associated only with binge eating.     

Sex differences in the nature,realism, and correlates of body image

The present study examined sex differences in the nature and realism of body-image satisfaction, and the extent to which sex and sex role ideology moderated the relationships of body image to other indices of self-esteem and well-being. Accordingly, scales assessing body cathexis, self-esteem, depression proneness, and sex role ideology, as well as a questionnaire assessing perceptions of weight and dieting activities, were completed by 135 college women and 129 college men. As expected, women indicated significantly greater dissatisfaction with their bodies than did men. Women were likely to perceive themselves as overweight or slightly overweight, regardless of their actual weight, and most wanted to lose weight. Men who were dissatisfied tended to perceive themselves as underweight and wanted to gain rather than to lose weight. For both sexes, less positive attitudes to ward one's body were related to lower levels of self-esteem, although the relationship was significantly stronger for women than for men. The relationship between body attitudes and self-esteem was of approximately equal magnitude among traditional vs feminist women. For both sexes, more negative attitudes towards one's body were related to greater proneness to depression. Implications for further research are discussed.     

Behavioral and psychological implications of body dissatisfaction: Do men and women differ?

The relationships of body satisfaction, self-esteem, dieting, and exercise were studied in 92 men and women. Men and women did not differ in degree of body dissatisfaction as assessed by three different measures. However, on the direction of body dissatisfaction, men were as likely to want to be heavier as thinner, whereas virtually no women wished to be heavier. Although overall body esteem was correlated with self-esteem for both men and women, measures of weight dissatisfaction were not associated with self-esteem for women. The normative nature of weight dissatisfaction for women today may serve to buffer its effects on self-esteem. Women reported exercising for weight control more than men, and exercising for weight control was associated with disregulated eating.     

Body image and strategies to lose weight and increase muscle among boys and girls.

This study examined factors that influence body image and strategies to either lose weight or increase muscle among children. Participants were 237 boys and 270 girls. Body mass index (BMI), body dissatisfaction, cognitions and behaviors to both lose weight and increase muscles, as well as self-esteem and positive and negative affect, were evaluated. Self-esteem was associated with body satisfaction, positive affect predicted strategies to lose weight and increase muscles, and negative affect predicted body dissatisfaction and cognitions to lose weight and increase muscles. Boys were more likely to focus on changing muscles. Respondents with higher BMIs were more focused on losing weight butnot muscle. The discussion focuses on health risk behaviors related to eating and exercise among children.     

A longitudinal investigation of the mediating role of self-esteem and body importance in the relationship between stress and body dissatisfaction in adolescent females and males

Body dissatisfaction is particularly prevalent during adolescence and has recently been linked to stress in females and males. However, prospective studies are needed to better understand the relationship between stress and body dissatisfaction. The present study investigates the direction of this association and the mediating role of self-esteem and body image importance. A sample of 298 adolescent females and males in Grades 7 to 10 (ages 12 to 17 years) were surveyed at two time points over a one-year period. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that stress significantly predicted body dissatisfaction one year later. Furthermore, a multiple mediation analysis controlling for gender revealed a significant indirect effect in both cross-sectional and longitudinal models, indicating that stress predicts reductions in self-esteem and increases in body importance, which in turn predict body dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that stress, self-esteem, and body importance should be included in programmes aimed at improving body dissatisfaction.     

Holding fat stereotypes is associated with lower body dissatisfaction in normal weight Caucasian women who engage in body surveillance

This study examined the moderating effect of body surveillance on the relationship between fat stereotype endorsement and body dissatisfaction in normal weight women. Participants (N = 225) completed online measures of fat stereotyping, body surveillance, body dissatisfaction, and internalized thin ideals. After accounting for thin ideals, body surveillance moderated the relationship between fat stereotypes and body dissatisfaction. Contrary to hypotheses, higher fat stereotype endorsement predicted lower body dissatisfaction in women with higher body surveillance. Conversely, higher fat stereotype endorsement predicted greater body dissatisfaction in women with lower body surveillance. Thus, endorsing fat stereotypes appears protective against body dissatisfaction in normal weight women who extensively engage in body surveillance. For women who hold fat stereotypes and report high body surveillance, we propose that downward appearance comparison may create a contrast between themselves and the people with overweight whom they denigrate, thus improving body dissatisfaction.     

“That camera adds ten pounds!:” Women's reactions to visual weight-related feedback and the role of trait body checking

In Study 1 women were randomly assigned to viewing: (1) no photo of themselves, (2) an accurate, full-body photo, (3) a photo modified to make them appear thinner than usual, or (4) a photo modified to make them appear heavier than usual. Measures of mood, state self-esteem, and body dissatisfaction were completed. There were no main effects of photo condition; participants were generally poor at perceiving weight change. The heavier that participants thought they looked in their photo as compared to usual, the worse their appearance self-esteem and body dissatisfaction. Study 2 replicated these results and found that participants with higher levels of trait body checking were more likely to report that they looked heavier than usual in the photo. Study 3 replicated these results and found that the correlation between body parts checking and how participants thought they looked in the photo held true even after controlling for appearance investment.     

Prevalence and correlates of disordered eating in female figure skaters

ObjectivesThe purposes of this study were to (a) examine the prevalence of disordered eating among female figure skaters, (b) compare levels of disordered eating between skaters and their same-age peers, (c) compare levels of disordered eating between elite skaters and their sub-elite counterparts, and (d) examine general and sport-related correlates of disordered eating (i.e., four sport-related weight pressures, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, positive and negative perfectionism, self-esteem, and athletic identity).DesignThis study employed a cross-sectional design.MethodsParticipants completed paper–pencil surveys, including measures for disordered eating, four sport-related weight pressures, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, positive and negative perfectionism, self-esteem, and athletic identity. Participants included 272 female figure skaters ages 12–25 (M = 15.63) across five US states.ResultsThirteen percent of participants scored within range of problematic eating attitudes and behaviors but were no more symptomatic than their same-age peers when compared to existing normative data. Levels of disordered eating did not significantly differ between those competing at the elite and sub-elite level. After controlling for body mass index and age, disordered eating was significantly predicted by self-consciousness of weight and appearance, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, and positive perfectionism.ConclusionsDisordered eating occurs in female figure skaters across competitive levels. Concern over weight and appearance, dissatisfaction with one's body in general and in sport, and positive perfectionism may serve as important tools in the prevention and detection of disordered eating in female figure skaters.     

Self-Esteem and Negative Affect as Moderators of Sociocultural Influences on Body Dissatisfaction,Strategies to Decrease Weight,and Strategies to Increase Muscles Among Adolescent Boys and Girls

The study was conducted to examine the impact of sociocultural influences and the moderating role of self-esteem and negative affect on body dissatisfaction and body change strategies for both adolescent boys and girls. Surveys designed to assess body dissatisfaction, body change strategies to decrease weight and increase muscles, perceived sociocultural pressures to lose weight and increase muscles, self-esteem and negative affect were administered to 587 boys and 598 girls aged between 11 and 15 years. The majority of respondents were from Anglo-Australian backgrounds (83%) with the remainder being from Asian and European non-English-speaking backgrounds. The sociocultural influences were found to significantly predict body dissatisfaction and body change strategies for both boys and girls. However, in the case of boys, self-esteem was found to moderate the impact of the sociocultural influences in predicting body change strategies. It was primarily the boys with low self-esteem who were more affected by the sociocultural pressures whereas the girls were affected independently of their self-esteem. Negative affect was also found to play a moderating role on some of the sociocultural influences in predicting strategies to increase muscles. Both boys and girls with higher levels of negative affect were more likely to be affected by sociocultural messages directed at increasing muscles. The results from the present study demonstrate that as well as examining the direct influence of sociocultural pressures, it is also important to examine how these may be moderated by self-esteem and negative affect.     

Weight Bias Internalization Scale Discriminates Obese and Overweight Patients with Different Severity Levels of Depression: the Italian Version of the WBIS

We have investigated the psychometric properties of the Italian version of the weight bias internalization scale (WBIS) in overweight and obese patients who were attending weight loss programs. Participants were 386 overweight and obese patients admitted in two medical centers specializing in the treatment of obesity. All the patients were administered the WBIS, and measures of binge eating, depression, self-esteem, and body dissatisfaction. Confirmatory factor analysis failed to confirm the fit of the original 11-item unidimensional model. Item analysis and exploratory factor analysis indicated that 9 items included in the original measure (the items 1 and 9 were excluded because low item-total correlations) formed a reliable unidimensional measure of internalized weight bias (WBIS-9). The WBIS-9 was significantly correlated with convergent measures and was able to categorize individuals with different severity levels of depression (sensitivity of 0.72 and specificity of 0.70). The WBIS-9 may be useful in clinical practice to discriminate patients with more severe psychopathology, comorbid disordered eating patterns, and risk for poor outcomes.     

Body dissatisfaction and body comparison with media images in males and females

This study examined the role of media body comparison as a mediator of the relationships between psychological factors and sociocultural pressures to be thin and body dissatisfaction in both females and males. Participants were 1,386 females (mean age = 19.37 years) and 1,130 males (mean age = 19.46) from diverse backgrounds who completed a self-report questionnaire. Path analysis was used to test a cross-sectional model in which media body comparison mediated the impact of self-esteem, depressive mood, parent dieting environment, friend dieting, TV exposure, magazine message exposure, weight teasing and body mass index (BMI) on body dissatisfaction. In females, media body comparison partially or fully mediated relationships between self-esteem, depressive mood, friend dieting, magazine message exposure and BMI, and body dissatisfaction. In males, media body comparison was not a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction. This research particularly highlights the need to further examine processes that are involved in the development of body dissatisfaction in males.     

A Preliminary Investigation of Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorder Symptomatology with Bisexual Individuals

Body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology were examined in bisexual individuals (n?=?139 women, n?=?37 men) and compared to lesbian/gay (n?=?51 women, n?=?96 men) and heterosexual individuals (n?=?82 women, n?=?34 men) in a U.S. online sample. Age, body mass index (BMI), income, and exercise frequency served as covariates. MANCOVA results showed a significant gender by sexual orientation interaction and significant main effects of gender and sexuality. Univariate tests were used to explore multivariate results. ANCOVA results for body dissatisfaction showed a significant gender by sexual orientation interaction. Post-hoc comparisons revealed higher levels of body dissatisfaction among all groups compared to heterosexual men. ANCOVA results for eating disorder symptomatology showed a significant main effect of sexual orientation. Post-hoc comparisons revealed higher levels of eating disorder symptoms among bisexual compared to heterosexual individuals. For bisexual men, gay community involvement, maladaptive social comparison, drive for muscularity, self-esteem, gender role orientation, and body dissatisfaction were explored as predictors of eating disorder symptomatology while controlling for age, BMI, exercise frequency, and income in a hierarchical regression analysis. The same factors, minus body dissatisfaction, were explored as predictors of body dissatisfaction in bisexual men. For bisexual women, similar factors, with the exception of drive for muscularity, were explored. Drive for muscularity predicted body dissatisfaction and exercise frequency predicted eating disorder symptomatology in bisexual men. BMI and self-esteem predicted body dissatisfaction in bisexual women; gay community involvement and body dissatisfaction predicted eating disorder symptomatology.     

Racial Identity and Gender as Moderators of the Relationship Between Body Image and Self-esteem for African Americans

This study explored whether multiple dimensions of racial identity and gender moderated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem for African American men and women (N?=?425) using an intersectional approach. Centrality (strength of identification with racial group), private regard (positive feelings about racial group), public regard (positive feelings others have about racial group), and gender moderated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem for a sample of men (n?=?109) and women (n?=?316) college students from three regions of the United States. Body dissatisfaction was related to lower self-esteem only for those African Americans for whom race was less central to their identities. High private regard and low body dissatisfaction were synergistically associated with higher self-esteem. Similarly, low public regard and high body dissatisfaction were synergistically related to lower self-esteem. There was a positive main effect for assimilation ideology (emphasis on similarities between African Americans and Western society) on self-esteem; however it was not a significant moderator. The relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem was stronger for women than for men. This study extends our knowledge of the ways in which racial attitudes and gender shape how African Americans experience their bodies and are related to self-esteem.     

Raising the bar on the body beautiful: An analysis of the body image concerns of homosexual men

Research suggests that gay men are at particular risk for body image dissatisfaction. This study seeks to extend research on gay men's body image concerns. A survey assessed the nature and correlates of body image dissatisfaction among 64 gay men. The survey included assessments related to involvement in and perceived acceptance within the gay community, social comparison tendencies, body image satisfaction, self-esteem, and depression. The results indicate that most participants were concerned with muscularity rather than weight. Greater social comparison tendencies and higher body mass index (BMI) were associated with greater body dissatisfaction. Although involvement and perceived acceptance in the gay community did not independently predict general body image dissatisfaction, there is evidence to suggest that the association between body image and self-esteem may be moderated by integration into the gay community, defined as involvement and perceived acceptance. Implications for the further study of gay men's body image are discussed.