A Contextual Approach to Scientific Understanding

Achieving understanding of nature is one of the aims of science. In this paper we offer an analysis of the nature of scientific understanding that accords with actual scientific practice and accommodates the historical diversity of conceptions of understanding. Its core idea is a general criterion for the intelligibility of scientific theories that is essentially contextual: which theories conform to this criterion depends on contextual factors, and can change in the course of time. Our analysis provides a general account of how understanding is provided by scientific explanations of diverse types. In this way, it reconciles conflicting views of explanatory understanding, such as the causal-mechanical and the unificationist conceptions.     

A Systems Approach to Perception and Action

ABSTRACT

On the 50th anniversary of its publication, we look back on some of the intellectual contributions of Gibson's (1966) The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. This work is often seen as contributing a new perspective to our understanding of the 5 senses. In this paper, we explore another intellectual contribution: Gibson's treatment of perception–action as an irreducible, functional system. We review select examples of systems thinking from the physical, animal, and human social domains. Our suggestion is that a systems-level approach to social interactions would have been a natural extension of Gibson's ideas.     

A Systems Approach to Ethical Problems

Codes of professional ethics and cases designed to teach ethical decision making are written for individual professionals and ignore the systems level of analysis. They typically employ a lineal view of causality and overvalue placement of blame as a component of ethical problem solving. This article takes a systems approach to ethical problems and identifies aspects of systems that promote or impede ethical decision making. Psychological abuse of children is used as an example of a problem requiring a coordinated, systemic response to ethical issues such as autonomy, privacy, and confidentiality.     

A New Approach to Reducing Disorder and Improving Well-Being

ABSTRACT— Psychological science has usually approached the treatment of disorder through research on individual combinations of risk and protective factors (including life experiences, thinking styles, behaviors, social relationships and genes) and the application of interventions that focus on improvements in the individual. However, we can do better than this. Not only should we be aiming to enhance well-being rather than merely reducing disorder, but we should also be doing so for the majority of people rather than the few who have a disorder. In this article, I focus on the mental health spectrum and make the case for a broad population-based approach. I argue that a very small shift in the population mean of the underlying symptoms or risk factors can do more to enhance well-being and reduce disorder than would any amount of intervention with individuals who need help. Examples from research on alcohol abuse and psychological distress are presented to illustrate the value of a population-based approach.     

A Dynamical Systems Approach to Skill Acquisition

This paper argues that the answer to the question, what has to be learned, needs to be established before the question, how is it learned, can be meaningfully addressed. Based on this conviction, some of the limitations of current and past research on skill acquisition are discussed. Motivated by the dynamical systems approach, the question of “what has to be learned” was tackled by setting up a non-linear mathematical model of the task (i.e. learning to make sideways movements on a ski apparatus). On the basis of this model, the phase lag between movements of the platform of the apparatus and the actions of the subject was isolated as an ensemble variable reflecting the timing of the subject in relation to the dynamics of the apparatus. This variable was subsequently used to study “how” the task was learned in a discovery learning experiment, in which predictions stemming from the model were tested and confirmed. Overall, these findings provided support for the hypothesis, formulated by Bernstein (1967), that one of the important effects of practice is learning to make use of reactive forces, thereby reducing the need for active muscular forces.

In addition, the data from a previous learning experiment on the ski apparatus—the results of which had been equivocal—were reconsidered. The use of phase lag as a dependent variable provided a resolution of those findings.

On the basis of the confirmatory testing of predictions stemming from the model and the clarification of findings from a previous experiment, it is argued that the dynamical systems approach put forward here provides a powerful method for pursuing issues in skill acquisition. Suggestions are made as to how this approach can be used to systematically pursue the questions that arise as a natural outcome of the experimental evidence presented here.     

A Model-Based Approach to Understanding Apraxia in Corticobasal Syndrome

Limb apraxia is a neurological disorder of higher cognitive function characterized by an inability to perform purposeful skilled movements and not attributable to an elementary sensorimotor dysfunction or comprehension difficulty. Corticobasal Syndrome (CBS) is an akinetic rigid syndrome with asymmetric onset and progression with at least one basal ganglia feature (rigidity, limb dystonia or myoclonus) and one cortical feature (limb apraxia, alien hand syndrome or cortical sensory loss). Even though limb apraxia is highly prevalent in CBS (70–80%), very few studies have examined the performance of CBS patients on praxis measures in detail. This review aims to (1) briefly summarize the clinical, neuroanatomical and pathological findings in CBS, (2) briefly outline what limb apraxia is and how it is assessed, (3) to comprehensively review the literature on limb apraxia in CBS to date and (4) to briefly summarize the literature on other forms of apraxia, such as limb-kinetic apraxia and buccofacial apraxia. Overall, the goal of the review is to bring a model-based perspective to the findings available in the literature to date on limb apraxia in CBS.     

A Dynamical Systems Approach to Manual Tracking Performance

Manual tracking performance was investigated from the perspective of dynamical systems theory. The authors manipulated the type of visual display, the control system dynamics, and the frequency of the sinusoidal input signal to examine couplings with various phases between the visual signal and control movements. Analyses of the system output amplitude ratio and relative phase showed that participants (N = 24) performed poorly with 90° relative phase coupling. All the couplings became less stable as the movement frequency increased. The authors developed an adaptive oscillator model with linear damping to describe the coupled system consisting of the human performer, the visual display, and the control system dynamics. A geometric account of the stability of performance at different relative phases is also presented.     

A Method for Improving the Integrity of Peer Review

Peer review is the most important aspect of reputable journals. Without it, we would be unsure about whether the material published was as valid and reliable as is possible. However, with the advent of the Internet, scientific literature has now become subject to a relatively new phenomenon: fake peer reviews. Some dishonest researchers have been manipulating the peer review process to publish what are often inferior papers. There are even papers that explain how to do it. This paper discusses one of those methods and how editors can defeat it by using a special review ID. This method is easy to understand and can be added to current peer review systems easily.     

A Systems Approach to the Treatment of Chemical Addiction

Therapists are increasingly considering chemical addiction from a family systems perspective. Effects of chemical dependency upon the family are discussed and intervention approaches aimed toward assisting the family as families redefine themselves and change their structure are considered. The integration of chemical dependency treatment and the family therapy is also discussed as it is practiced in an intensive outpatient program at a psychiatric hospital.     

A Grounded Approach to the Study of Complex Systems

The complex and dynamic nature of systems pose a particular challenge to researchers and require the use of a research methodology designed to deal with such systems. The properties of fit, relevance, understandability, generality, control, workability, generalizability, and modifiability make Glaserian grounded theory and grounded action particularly well suited for studying systems. These methods are innovative, systemic, and sophisticated enough to reveal the underlying complexities of systems and plan actions that address their complex, dynamic nature while remaining grounded in what is occurring within the systems as they change over time.     

A Multi-Theoretical,Evidence-Based Approach for Understanding and Managing Adolescent Resistance to Psychotherapy

Adolescents are often labeled as “resistant” to psychotherapy. Rather than blaming adolescent clients or psychotherapists, this article conceptualizes adolescent resistance as normal behavior emanating from a challenging situation. Based on a developmentally sensitive foundation and drawing from person-centered, motivational, solution-focused, choice theory, cognitive-behavioral, and multicultural perspectives, several practical and evidence-based strategies for managing, reducing, or eliminating resistance are provided. Case vignettes are used to illustrate specific strategies. Successful psychotherapy with adolescents requires flexibility and openness, integration of diverse theoretical perspectives with contemporary empirical knowledge, and an attitude of respect for adolescent autonomy.     

Perfectionism and Psychological Distress: A Modeling Approach to Understanding their Therapeutic Relationship

The present study assessed the effectiveness of a web-based psycho-educational intervention protocol for decreasing levels of perfectionism and psychological distress. Different levels of therapeutic intervention (no treatment, general stress management intervention, general stress management intervention plus cognitive behavioral intervention) were provided to perfectionistic participants over a 10-week period. It was found via a longitudinal structural equation model that higher levels of therapeutic intervention predicted greater improvements in perfectionism and psychological distress. Further, amount of improvement in trait perfectionism and perfectionistic automatic thoughts was highly related to amount of improvement in psychological distress. The findings attest to the potential usefulness of a web-based intervention that combines a general stress management intervention with a cognitive behavioral intervention.     

记忆研究的功能取向

记忆功能是人类适应环境的结果,记忆系统的“设计”（运作机制）则支持其功能。因此,通过探究人类面临的适应性问题,分析记忆功能,再推测并验证记忆解决方案,是研究记忆的一种可靠途径,此即为记忆研究的功能取向。本文以记忆的生存优势效应（相比控制加工条件,判断单词对求生情境的重要性可获得更好的记忆保持量）、多重记忆系统的分离与协同、记忆对未来的价值等问题为例,具体阐明了该取向是如何促进研究者理解记忆运作的。     

A Systems Approach to Priority Setting of Interventions in Groups

The author provides an overview of self-help groups in terms of their origins, growth, scope, and effectiveness, and then compares these groups with professionally conducted psychotherapy groups. A framework for evaluating group helping systems is proposed which includes five principal dimensions: the helping group as a social microcosm; technological complexity/simplicity; psychological distance/closeness between helper and helpee; specificity/generality of help methods; and differentiation versus nondifferentiation among participants. The author concludes his article by recommending four strategies for how group therapists can contribute to self-help groups.     

A Systems Approach to Sex Therapy with Gay Male Couples

SUMMARY

Sex therapy with gay male couples is difficult for many family and relationship therapists. Family therapists lack knowledge of the nature of sex therapy, gay male culture and sexuality, the dynamics of gay male couples, and the sexual issues gay male couples are likely to bring to sex therapy. Countertransference also makes sex therapy with gay male couples difficult for some family and relationship therapists. This paper addresses those issues and then explains a systems approach to sex therapy with gay male couples.     

A Full Circle: Psycho-dynamic Understanding and Systems Theory

Two papers published in 1979 are reviewed, one which looked at theories of family interaction and techniques of intervention, and the other at developments of the focal approach to family therapy which has its base in a dynamic understanding of the nature of relationships, but uses a variety of systemic interventions to create change. The development of the approach is described, along with its application to work in the abuse field. A recent case where two daughters were sexually abused by the grandfather who had abused their mother is used as an illustration.