The utility of the MMPI-2 malingering discriminant function index in the detection of malingering: a study of criminal defendants

This study examined the utility of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2's (MMPI-2) malingering discriminant function index (M-DFI), recently developed by Bacchiochi and Bagby, in the detection of malingering in a forensic sample. Criminal defendants were divided into "malingering" and "not malingering" groups using the structured interview of reported symptoms (SIRS) criteria proposed by Rogers. Logistic regression analysis (LRA) revealed that the MMPI-2 infrequency (F) scale had the best predictive utility of the traditional infrequency scales. Although the M-DFI did significantly differentiate the malingering from the not malingering groups, it did not add significantly to the predictive utility of the MMPI-2 F scale. Receiver operating characteristics analyses demonstrated acceptable sensitivity and specificity for the MMPI-2 F scale, but poor sensitivity for the M-DFI scale. The results are discussed in terms of the utility of the M-DFI in detecting malingering and problems of extending the findings of simulation studies to the forensic context.     

Psychometric evaluation of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical scales in two Dutch samples

In this article, we evaluate internal validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) scales in the Dutch MMPI-2 normative sample (N = 1,244) and a Dutch outpatient psychiatric sample (N = 1,066). We pay special attention to a critique regarding construct drift of RC3 and the redundancy of the RC scales with existing MMPI-2 scales. The results indicate that the RC scales in both samples show comparable or better internal consistencies than the Clinical scales. Also, in both samples, the RC scales demonstrate lower scale-level intercorrelations than the Clinical scales. As to the structural characteristics, principal component analysis of the RC scales provided a clearer pattern than an analysis of the Clinical scales. Furthermore, mean raw scores on the RC scales for men in the Dutch normative sample corresponded highly with those in the U.S. normative sample except for RC2 and RC4. Less correspondence was found for women. Overall, we conclude that the RC scales show satisfactory reliability and promising internal validity in our Dutch samples. We suggest that U.S. validation studies on the RC scales may be generalized to the Dutch-language version of the MMPI-2 RC scales.     

The MMPI-2 With College Students

MMPI-2 responses of 515 male and 797 female college students from four universities were examined. College students were compared with the new MMPI-2 normative sample on the clinical and validity scales. The reliability of MMPI-2 scores of college students were compared with reliabilities of the MMPI-2 normative sample. The results indicated that college students respond to the MMPI-2 in a highly similar manner to the MMPI-2 normative sample. Mean score differences on the validity and clinical scales were within 1 to 3 T-score points on most scales, and the frequency distributions of the college students were highly similar to those of the MMPI-2 normative samples, Slight differences obtained on the Pt, Sc, and Ma scales may reflect the younger age of the college groups compared to the MMPI-2 normative groups. The MMPI-2 norms were shown to be appropriate for use with college subjects. Test-retest correlation coefficients obtained from college students who were administered the MMPI-2 on two occasions showed reliabilities comparable to those found for the MMPI-2 normative sample.     

Assessing bilingual and monolingual Latino students with translations of the MMPI-2: initial data

This article presents the results of 2 studies conducted with Spanish versions of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) with Latino students. Study 1 compared the results of 2 administrations of the MMPI-2, one in English and the other in Spanish. Study 2 compared the results of administrations of 2 Spanish versions of the MMPI-2, the official Mexican adaptation and the Version Hispana. In both cases, scale score differences were not found. Comparability, as operationally defined by test-retest reliability, was found to be higher for the group that was administered the English and Spanish versions than the group administered the 2 Spanish versions. Overall, the results were found to suggest correspondence. Yet, the authors warn against concluding "perfect" correspondence because other key groups need to be studied, including psychiatric patients and persons from the Latino community. Also, the determination of linguistic equivalence needs further refinement.     

MMPI-2-RF characteristics of custody evaluation litigants

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) is a 338-item objective self-report measure drawn from the 567 items of the MMPI-2. Although there is a substantial MMPI-2 literature regarding child custody litigants, there has been only one previously published study using MMPI-2-RF data in this population that focused on Validity scales L-r and K-r. The current study evaluated the MMPI-2-RF results of 344 child custody litigants and showed substantial consistency between T-score elevations typically found on MMPI-2 Validity scales L and K, and comparable elevations for MMPI-2-RF validity scales L-r and K-r. Mean T-scores well within normal limits characterized results for clinical scales on both instruments. The RC scale intercorrelation patterns, and alpha coefficient values found for MMPI-2-RF scales in a custody population, were also found to be very similar to those reported for other populations. Directions for future research are presented.     

How (not) to evaluate the comparability of MMPI and MMPI-2 profile configurations: a reply to Humphrey and Dahlstrom

Humphrey and Dahlstrom (1995) presented a study on the comparability of MMPI/MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) profiles in which they concluded that "the bases for clinical interpretation derived from the MMPI and MMPI-2 profiles were sufficiently at variance to require different conclusions" [sic] (p. 2). In this brief critique, we identify procedural and data-analytical deficiencies that invalidate Humphrey and Dahlstrom's argument. Their blanket recommendation based on this argument, namely, that clinicians routinely plot both MMPI and MMPI-2 profiles, is unwarranted.     

Syndromal complexity, paradigm shifts, and the future of validation research: comments on Nichols and Rogers, Sewell, Harrison, and Jordan

In this comment, I address a number of the points raised in the reviews of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC; Tellegen et al., 2003) Scales by Nichols (2006/this issue) and Rogers, Sewell, Harrison, and Jordan (2006/this issue), and I advocate for changes in assessment validation research. There is little evidence that the "syndromal complexity" Nichols ascribes to the original MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) Clinical Scales is worth preserving. Although their construction does not constitute the paradigm shift claimed by Rogers et al., the RC Scales are promising, psychometrically defensible measures of core features of the original MMPI-2 Clinical Scales. However, validation of inferences from multiscale inventories such as the MMPI-2 is limited at present by a disconnection between the integrative manner in which MMPI-2 profiles are interpreted and the scale-by-scale nature of most MMPI-2 validation studies. Q-sort procedures show promise for operationalizing integrated MMPI-2 interpretations, with both research and teaching applications.     

MMPI-2 Assessment of Varying Levels of Posttraumatic Stress in Vietnam Combat Veterans

The effectiveness of the MMPI-2 in the detection of posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptomatology was investigated. Forty-nine veterans at a VA posttraumatic stress clinic were evaluated for PTS symptomatology according to DSM-III-R criteria. The ability of the MMPI-2 to differentiate between Vietnam combat veterans (VCV) who met DSM-III-R criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; N = 36) and those who reported varying levels of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS; N = 13) was examined. Overall, the MMPI-2 was effective in differentiating between the two groups of veterans. Of the 15 MMPI-2 scales used to evaluate PTS symptomatology, 12 significantly differentiated veterans with PTSD from those with PTSS. Diagnostic efficiency statistics for the MMPI-2 PTSD scales (PS and PK) were calculated at four cutoff points (T 65, 70, 75, and 80). The PS Scale was the most robust and effective index in differentiating between veterans with PTSD and those with PTSS. Implications for the assessment of varying degrees of PTS are discussed.     

Readministration of the MMPI-2 following defensive invalidation in a military job applicant sample

Job applicants whose response style on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer) is excessively defensive create a dilemma for psychologists working in personnel selection settings. Clinical guidelines recommend the profile be considered uninterpretable, but the absence of usable testing data could lead to the elimination of otherwise qualified candidates. Readministering the MMPI-2 with altered instructions to reduce defensive responding has been suggested as an alternative. This option has lacked empirical support until recently. One study (Butcher, Morfitt, Rouse, & Holden, 1997) evaluated the effects of altered instructions on retest validity in a civilian job applicant sample, with the majority of participants obtaining valid and normal profiles on retest. The purpose of this study was to determine if these results would be replicated in a military job applicant sample. Participants were 97 military personnel who completed the MMPI-2 as part of application for selection to instructor duty. Forty-seven participants had obtained invalid profiles and retook the MMPI-2 after receiving instructions intended to reduce defensiveness. The results showed that 83% of retested participants obtained valid profiles on the second MMPI-2. The second test results were very similar in profile to those obtained from a comparison group of 50 participants whose initial MMPI-2 results were valid. The findings are discussed in terms of study limitations and future research directions.     

Faking bad and faking good by college students on the Korean MMPI-2

Recent studies that have investigated the utility of MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) validity scales have shown the promising efficacy of these scales in detecting faking-good and faking-bad responses. However, existing research is confined to North America, and work in other cultures is still lacking. The purpose of this study lies in exploring the efficacy of MMPI-2 validity scales in South Korea. The F, Fb, F - K, and F(p) scales of the Korean MMPI-2 (Han, 1993) were able successfully to classify faking-bad participants. The L, K, and S scales of the Korean MMPI-2 were able successfully to classify faking-good participants. Overall, the results of this study suggest that the Korean MMPI-2 works well in discriminating dishonest responses, thus confirming the applicability of the MMPI-2 validity scales in a Korean context.     

Assessment feedback integrating MMPI-2 and Rorschach findings

Many clinicians are committed to giving feedback to clients about assessment results, but puzzle over how to integrate Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) and Rorschach findings when talking to clients. When the two tests agree, findings may be combined and assessors may use the language of clients' Rorschach percepts to frame findings from the MMPI-2 or the Structural Summary. When the Rorschach shows more disturbance than the MMPI-2, assessors may discuss "levels of personality," praise clients for their usual coping mechanisms, and raise the possibility of underlying problems. When the Rorschach depicts less psychopathology than the MMPI-2, clinicians may talk with Clients about factors influencing them to present as needing help. Alternatively, assessors may hypothesize that clients constrict emotionally in interpersonal, unstructured situations.     

Diagnostic accuracy of the MMPI-2 Malingering Discriminant Function Index in the detection of malingering among inmates

The MMPI-2 Malingering Discriminant Function Index (M-DFI) was designed to detect malingerers educated about MMPI-2 validity indicators. However, given current attorney practices, the clinical utility of the M-DFI lies in its ability to detect examinees who are cautioned about the indicators. In this study, we compared 45 inmate simulators cautioned to avoid detection on the MMPI-2 with 46 psychiatric inmates who completed the MMPI-2 under standard instructions. Logistic regression analyses indicated that although the M-DFI performed better than several individual indicators, results were mixed for combinations of indicators, and the M-DFI did not outperform different sets of existing indicators. These findings support existing strategies to detect malingering on the MMPI-2. We discuss considerations concerning the clinical applicability of M-DFI.     

Assessing depression with the MMPI and MMPI-2

The usefulness of the MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1951 ) and MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) for diagnosing and assessing symptomatic depression has been the subject of considerable debate for a number of years. In this article, we review the relative contributions of the MMPI and MMPI-2 clinical and content scales in predicting depression. Positive predictive power, negative predictive power, and overall classification rate were computed for Scale 2 (D) of the MMPI and MMPI-2 and the Depression content scale (DEP) of the MMPI-2. Scale 2 (D) of both the MMPI and MMPI-2 appears to be moderately accurate in predicting depression. Although some studies suggest that the content scale DEP provides incremental validity over Scale 2 (D) of the MMPI-2, the results of this review indicate that the content scale DEP of the MMPI-2 does not exceed the diagnostic efficiency of Scale 2 in predicting depression.     

Code-type comparability of the MMPI and MMPI-2: analysis of recent findings and criticisms

The introduction of the MMPI-2 has stimulated studies of its comparability with the MMPI. Graham, Timbrook, Ben-Porath, and Butcher (1991) consider the congruence between MMPI-2 and MMPI code types substantial, but Dahlstrom (1992) has questioned their appraisal, criticizing their use of "well-defined" code types. Our own analysis supports Graham and colleagues' (1991) conclusions and provides reasons for favoring narrow code types (such as well- defined code types) over nonrestrictive ones. We also offer a brief historical review of MMPI code typology as background for our recommendation that future MMPI-2 research not be limited to studies of code-type correlates.     

Code-Type Comparability of the MMPI and MMPI-2: Analysis of Recent Findings and Criticisms

The introduction of the MMPI-2 has stimulated studies of its comparability with the MMPI. Graham, Timbrook, Ben-Porath, and Butcher (1991) consider the congruence between MMPI-2 and MMPI code types substantial, but Dahlstrom (1992) has questioned their appraisal, criticizing their use of "well-defined" code types. Our own analysis supports Graham and colleagues' (1991) conclusions and provides reasons for favoring narrow code types (such as well- defined code types) over nonrestrictive ones. We also offer a brief historical review of MMPI code typology as background for our recommendation that future MMPI-2 research not be limited to studies of code-type correlates.     

Evaluating the Similarity of MMPI-2 and MMPI Profiles: Reply to Dahlstrom and Humphrey

We review issues that have arisen in exchanges with Dahlstrom and Humphrey (Dahlstrom & Humphrey, 1996; Humphrey & Dahlstrom, 1995) about assessing the comparability of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) and the MMPI. We point out the limitations of Q correlations (without contending that D² is "the only legitimate function of profile comparability," as Dahlstrom and Humphrey, 1996, p. 350, claim we do), and explain why Dahlstrom and Humphrey's (1996) new Q-correlational results, correctly interpreted, are consistent with our own previous observations and conclusions. We stress again the importance of both overall profile elevation and profile "definition" in making code-type assignments. Nonrestrictive code types ignore these profile characteristics, and their use needlessly lowers MMPI-2/MMPI code-type congruences and raises the incidence of profile misinterpretations. Our recommendation of well-defined MMPI-2 code types stands.     

Evaluating the similarity of MMPI-2 and MMPI profiles: reply to Dahlstrom and Humphrey

We review issues that have arisen in exchanges with Dahlstrom and Humphrey (Dahlstrom & Humphrey, 1996; Humphrey & Dahlstrom, 1995) about assessing the comparability of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) and the MMPI. We point out the limitations of Q correlations (without contending that D(2) is "the only legitimate function of profile comparability," as Dahlstrom and Humphrey, 1996, p. 350, claim we do), and explain why Dahlstrom and Humphrey's (1996) new Q-correlational results, correctly interpreted, are consistent with our own previous observations and conclusions. We stress again the importance of both overall profile elevation and profile "definition" in making code-type assignments. Nonrestrictive code types ignore these profile characteristics, and their use needlessly lowers MMPI-2/MMPI code-type congruences and raises the incidence of profile misinterpretations. Our recommendation of well-defined MMPI-2 code types stands.     

Cross-cultural equivalence and validity of the Vietnamese MMPI-2: assessing psychological adjustment of Vietnamese refugees

The cross-cultural equivalence and validity of the Vietnamese translation of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory--2 (MMPI-2) were examined in a sample of 1st-generation Vietnamese refugees in the United States (N = 143). Respondents completed the Vietnamese MMPI-2, the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire, a measure of acculturation, and a demographic questionnaire. An inspection of MMPI-2 mean profiles and items showing extreme endorsement rates suggested that certain symptom tendencies and cultural values may be reflected in responses to some MMPI-2 items. Older age, lower acculturation, greater experienced premigration-postmigration traumas, and military veteran status were all associated with elevated MMPI-2 profiles, suggesting that the MMPI-2 functions in a reasonably equivalent and valid way in this population.     

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Form in National Guard soldiers screening positive for posttraumatic stress disorder and mild traumatic brain injury

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2 RF) was administered to 251 National Guard soldiers who had recently returned from deployment to Iraq. Soldiers were also administered questionnaires to identify posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). On the basis of responses to the screening instruments, the National Guard soldiers who produced a valid MMPI-2 RF were classified into four groups: 21 soldiers who screened positive for PTSD only, 33 soldiers who screened positive for mTBI only, 9 soldiers who screened positive for both conditions, and 166 soldiers who did not screen positive for either condition. Results showed that the MMPI-2 RF was able to differentiate across the groups with the MMPI-2 RF specific problem scale Anxiety adding incrementally to MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical scales in predicting PTSD. Both MMPI-2 RC1 (Somatic Complaints) and MMPI-2 RF head pain complaints predicted mTBI screen but did not add incrementally to each other. Of note, all of the MMPI-2 RF validity scales associated with overreporting, including Symptom Validity-Revised (FBS-r), were not significantly elevated in the mTBI group. These findings support the use of the MMPI-2 RF in assessing PTSD in non-treatment-seeking veterans. This further suggests that a positive screen for mTBI alone is not associated with significant emotional disturbance.