Inhibition of non-target languages in multilingual word production: Evidence from Uighur–Chinese–English trilinguals

The present study examined the hypothesis whether non-target languages are inhibited during multilingual language production by examining the n-2 language repetition cost. In two experiments, Uighur–Chinese–English trilinguals named Arabic digits in one of their three languages according to a visually presented cue. Significant n-2 repetition costs were obtained in both experiments, which indicate that inhibition exists during multilingual word production. In addition, in Experiment 1, it was also found that the n-2 repetition cost was reduced when cues were highly compatible with the task, which means non-target languages are less inhibited. In Experiment 2, the n-2 repetition cost was increased at a shorter CSI. Taken together, these results indicate that inhibition of non-target languages occurs during multilingual language production, and that efficiency of establishing the target language task schema has an effect on the inhibitory control process.     

Non-target language processing in Chinese-English bilinguals: a study of event-related potential

The event-related brain potential (ERP) technique was used to investigate the neural mechanism of non-target language processing in Chinese-English bilinguals. Participants were presented with a mixed list of Chinese and English words and required to make conceptual decisions for words in one language and ignore words in the other non-target language. Regardless of whether the nontarget word was in Chinese or English, the ERPs they elicited were modulated by word frequency, suggesting that their meaning had been accessed. The N400 peak was delayed in the English as the non-target language condition, probably because participants were less proficient in English. The results suggest that the non-target language can be processed during conceptual tasks with participants' proficiency in this language being a critical factor.     

双语即时切换下非目标语言语音和语义的激活状态

本研究采用双语即时切换范式, 探讨非熟练中英双语者在对目标语言(启动词)语音或语义的加工过程中非目标语言的激活状态。实验1设置了与启动词的翻译对等词存在语音相关或无关的两类配对词, 要求被试进行语音判断任务, 结果表明, 不论哪种切换条件, 两类配对词在反应时和P200成分上都没有差异, 说明目标语言在语音加工过程中非目标语言的语音层面没有得到自动激活, 从而没有产生启动效应。实验2则设置了语义相关和无关配对词, 并进行语义判断任务, 结果在两种切换条件下都发现明显的语义启动效应及N400差异, 说明非目标语言在语义层面上有得到自动激活, 但激活的程度表现出切换方向上的不一致, L1-L2切换下的语义启动量要明显大于L2-L1, 并且L1-L2的N400差异主要表现在前部脑区, 持续时间更久, 而L2-L1的N400差异主要表现在后部脑区, 但持续时间较短, 表明对于非熟练的双语者来说, 不同切换方向下对共享语义表征的激活加工是不一样的。     

Masked repetition priming hinders subsequent recollection but not familiarity: A behavioral and event-related potential study

The present study used the masked repetition priming paradigm in the study phase and the R/K paradigm in the test phase to investigate whether repetition priming can hinder recognition memory and which recognition process (familiarity or recollection) is hindered. Event-related potentials (ERPs) in the study and test phase were recorded to explore the temporal course of how repetition priming hinders subsequent recognition memory and which old/new effect (FN400 or LPC) is affected. Converging behavioral and ERP results indicated that masked repetition priming hindered subsequent recollection but not familiarity. The analysis of ERP priming effects in the study phase indicated that primed words were associated with less negative N400 and less positive LPC compared to unprimed words. The analysis of the priming effect as a function of subsequent memory revealed that only the LPC priming effect was predictive of priming effect on subsequent memory, which suggested that the “prediction-error” account might be a possible explanation of how repetition priming affects subsequent recognition memory.     

On the time course of accessing meaning in a second language: An electrophysiological and behavioral investigation of translation recognition

In 2 experiments, relatively proficient Chinese-English bilinguals decided whether Chinese words were the correct translations of English words. Critical trials were those on which incorrect translations were related in lexical form or meaning to the correct translation. In Experiment 1, behavioral interference was revealed for both distractor types, but event-related potentials (ERPs) revealed a different time course for the 2 conditions. Semantic distractors elicited effects primarily on the N400 and late positive component (LPC), with a smaller N400 and a smaller LPC over the posterior scalp but a larger LPC over the anterior scalp relative to unrelated controls. In contrast, translation form distractors elicited a larger P200 and a larger LPC than did unrelated controls. To determine whether the translation form effects were enabled by the relatively long, 750-ms stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between words, a 2nd ERP experiment was conducted using a shorter, 300-ms, SOA. The behavioral results revealed interference for both types of distractors, but the ERPs again revealed different loci for the 2 effects. Taken together, the data suggest that proficient bilinguals activate 1st-language translations of words in the 2nd language after they have accessed the meaning of those words. The implications of this pattern for claims about the nature of cross-language activation when bilinguals read in 1 or both languages are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

非熟练双语者言语产生中非目标语言的激活范围

采用图-图干扰范式来考察非熟练中-英双语者言语产生中非目标语言的激活范围。实验1探讨用汉语命名时,干扰图的英语名称能否得以激活。结果发现,干扰图的词汇熟悉度高时,音译词的反应时显著长于音韵无关词,而熟悉度低时,二者无显著差异,说明在一语的产生过程中只能激活二语中高熟悉的非目标词。实验2探讨用英语命名时,干扰图的汉语名称能否激活。结果发现,不论熟悉度高还是低,音译词的反应时均显著长于音韵无关词,说明在二语的产生过程中会激活一语中的非目标词。总的结果说明,非熟练中-英双语者在言语产生过程中非目标语言中的非目标词也会激活,并且激活范围既受非目标语言的熟练程度的影响,也受非目标词熟悉度的影响。     

Within- and between-language priming differ: evidence from repetition of pictures in Spanish-English bilinguals

In the current study, the authors used an immediate repetition paradigm with pictures to observe whether repetition enhances word production in bilinguals. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to name pictures that were named previously in the same language (Spanish-Spanish or English-English) or in the opposite language (Spanish-English or English-Spanish). Results revealed a repetition effect both within languages and between languages. Furthermore, there was an asymmetry within language, with repetition priming being larger in Spanish than in English. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that lag interacted with language for both within- and between-language priming. However, lag resulted in a decrease in the asymmetry for within- but not between-language priming. The results are consistent with the view that within- and between-language repetition priming are mediated by different mechanisms.     

Neurophysiological marker of inhibition distinguishes language groups on a non-linguistic executive function test

Successful interaction with the environment depends on flexible behaviors which require shifting attention, inhibiting primed responses, ignoring distracting information, and withholding motor responses. These abilities, termed executive function (EF), are believed to be mediated by inhibitory processes in the frontal lobes. Superior performance on EF tests (i.e., faster reaction times (RT), and fewer errors) has been shown in bilinguals compared to monolingual speakers. However, findings are inconsistent, and no study has directly linked this bilingual advantage to frontal lobe inhibitory processes. To clarify this uncertainty, we concomitantly tested neural inhibitory processes and behavioral responses on an EF test in bilinguals and monolinguals. Specifically, we compared English monolinguals (N = 15) to Spanish/English bilinguals (N = 13) on event-related brain potentials (ERP) during a non-linguistic, auditory Go/NoGo task, a task linked to non-motor, cognitive inhibition in monolinguals. Participants responded with a button press on trials in which target tone-pairs (Go trials) were presented and withheld their responses on non-target trials (NoGo trials). Results revealed significantly greater inhibition (i.e., greater mean N2 amplitude) in bilinguals compared to monolinguals during NoGo trials even though both groups performed the task equally well (i.e., withheld a motor response). On Go trials where participants pressed a response button, neither ERPs nor RT distinguished the groups. Additionally, scores on a second language proficiency test (i.e., English in our bilingual group) were positively correlated with N2 amplitude. These findings are the first to directly link this bilingual advantage to a neural correlate of inhibition and to reveal that inhibition in bilinguals is moderated by second language proficiency. Results are discussed in the context of plasticity, and we propose that evaluating bilinguals at varying levels of second-language proficiency may serve as a model of human neuroplasticity.     

Neurophysiological marker of inhibition distinguishes language groups on a non-linguistic executive function test

Successful interaction with the environment depends on flexible behaviors which require shifting attention, inhibiting primed responses, ignoring distracting information, and withholding motor responses. These abilities, termed executive function (EF), are believed to be mediated by inhibitory processes in the frontal lobes. Superior performance on EF tests (i.e., faster reaction times (RT), and fewer errors) has been shown in bilinguals compared to monolingual speakers. However, findings are inconsistent, and no study has directly linked this bilingual advantage to frontal lobe inhibitory processes. To clarify this uncertainty, we concomitantly tested neural inhibitory processes and behavioral responses on an EF test in bilinguals and monolinguals. Specifically, we compared English monolinguals (N = 15) to Spanish/English bilinguals (N = 13) on event-related brain potentials (ERP) during a non-linguistic, auditory Go/NoGo task, a task linked to non-motor, cognitive inhibition in monolinguals. Participants responded with a button press on trials in which target tone-pairs (Go trials) were presented and withheld their responses on non-target trials (NoGo trials). Results revealed significantly greater inhibition (i.e., greater mean N2 amplitude) in bilinguals compared to monolinguals during NoGo trials even though both groups performed the task equally well (i.e., withheld a motor response). On Go trials where participants pressed a response button, neither ERPs nor RT distinguished the groups. Additionally, scores on a second language proficiency test (i.e., English in our bilingual group) were positively correlated with N2 amplitude. These findings are the first to directly link this bilingual advantage to a neural correlate of inhibition and to reveal that inhibition in bilinguals is moderated by second language proficiency. Results are discussed in the context of plasticity, and we propose that evaluating bilinguals at varying levels of second-language proficiency may serve as a model of human neuroplasticity.     

主动性控制在语言转换线索加工阶段的作用

利用ERP技术,考察个体的主动性控制在语言转换线索加工阶段的作用。实验采用线索化的语言转换范式,要求汉–英双语者根据线索使用汉语或英语对图片进行命名,记录线索加工阶段的脑电成分。采用AX连续执行测验（AX-Continuous Performance Test）中AY试次的错误率作为主动性控制参与程度的指标。结果发现,在线索呈现后的200-350 ms和350-500 ms两个时间窗口,转换试次比重复试次诱发了更负的N2波幅和晚期负波,而且AY试次的错误率可以显著地预测转换试次的N2和晚期负波的波幅。结果表明,语言转换的线索加工可区分为由主动性控制调节的两个阶段,即“与非目标语言任务图式的分离”和“转入目标语言任务图式”的阶段。本研究为主动性控制参与语言转换过程提供了直接的实验证据。     

词汇熟悉度对非熟练中英双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言激活的影响

采用改造后的长时重复启动范式,探讨母语为汉语的非熟练中英双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言的激活层面,以及词汇熟悉度的影响。实验1考察学习阶段不同熟悉度的非目标词在测验阶段呈现时能否出现长时重复启动效应,从而检测双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言是否自动激活,实验2探究学习阶段不同熟悉度的非目标词在测验阶段以翻译对等词呈现时能否出现长时重复启动效应,从而检测双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言的语义层面能否激活。结果发现:非熟练中英双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言不管为中文还是英文,都能自动激活,但激活层面会受到词汇熟悉度的影响;当非目标语言为二语时,熟悉度高的二语词能激活到语义层面,熟悉度低的二语词只能激活到词汇层面;当非目标语言为一语时,不管词汇熟悉度高还是低,都能够激活到语义层面。     

It all sounds the same to me: Sequential ERP and behavioral effects during pitch and harmonicity judgments

The representation of complex sounds was examined by comparing both behavioral and event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to the change or repetition of fundamental frequency (f0) and harmonicity. In the pitch task, participants were asked to categorize the incoming stimulus as either low or high, regardless of harmonicity, and in the harmonicity task, participants indicated whether the stimulus was tuned or mistuned, regardless of pitch. Over three experiments, participants were faster in responding to pitch than to harmonicity. As a result of this asymmetry, behavioral and ERP data showed that irrelevant changes in harmonicity had little impact on performance during the pitch task, whereas harmonicity judgments were impeded by irrelevant changes in f0. These data are consistent with both general horse-race accounts of processing and specific accounts of mistuning detection that posit prior f0 registration. In addition, ERP components N2 and P3 were modulated by both intertrial contingency and task instructions, revealing the further influence of top-down mechanisms on concurrent sound segregation.     

双语者语言转换中非目标语言的加工机制

语言转换是指双语者由所掌握的一种语言转换到另一种语言的现象, 这一现象近些年来引起了研究者的广泛关注。针对语言转换中双语者在从心理词典中顺利提取所需要的语言(称之为目标语言)时如何加工在当前任务中不使用的那种语言(称之为非目标语言), 研究者进行了大量研究。仔细分析这些研究, 可以看出这些研究主要围绕着3个核心问题: (1)语言转换中双语者使用目标语言时非目标语言是否激活; (2)若非目标语言激活, 这种激活发生在何种层面(概念层面还是词汇层面); (3)激活的非目标语言会对目标语言产生什么样的影响。以此为基础, 本文从语言产生转换和语言理解转换两大领域对相关研究进行了总结和梳理, 最后对未来的语言转换研究进行了展望。     

汉-维非熟练双语者非目标语言语音激活与语义激活差异的ERP研究

采用跨语言中介启动范式,通过两个2(词对类型)*2(启动方向)被试内的ERP实验,探讨非熟练汉-维双语者非目标语言语音激活与语义激活状态的差异。结果表明:(1)L2-L1启动方向下,语音相关词对与无关词对诱发P200峰值差异更大,潜伏期更长。(2)L1-L2启动方向下,语义相关词对与无关词对诱发N400峰值差异更大,潜伏期更长。结论:(1)在加工目标语言时非熟练汉-维双语者非目标语言词汇层与概念层都激活。(2)当非目标语言是汉语时语音激活强度大,激活速度较慢;语义激活强度较小,激活速度较快。(3)当非目标语言是维吾尔语时语音激活强度小,激活速度较快;语义激活强度较大,激活速度较慢。     

Effects of Bilingualism and Trilingualism in L2 Production: Evidence from Errors and Self-Repairs in Early Balanced Bilingual and Trilingual Adults

Through analyzing response latencies, errors, and self-repairs in Mandarin, this investigation explores how monolingual, bilingual, and trilingual adults process their speech production differently using cognitive control mechanisms. In this study we conducted two experiments involving speech production in Mandarin. In the two experiments, 81 adults participated and were categorized into three groups: Mandarin monolingual, Hakka-Mandarin bilingual, and Hakka-Mandarin-Minnan trilingual. In Experiment 1 (unpreprogrammed task), each subject read 250 targets that were presented on a computer screen, one at a time, using E-prime; in Experiment 2 (preprogrammed task), each subject read 466 targets printed on A4 paper. Experiment 1 showed that bilinguals and trilinguals outperformed monolinguals in every aspect examined in this research, revealing the presence of bilingual and trilingual advantages in inhibitory control. Interestingly, in Experiment 2, we found a more complex pattern of results: a trilingual advantage in attentional control occurred during L2 production in terms of the number of errors and error correction; however, the bilingual group did not maintain this advantage in the task requiring attentional control. These experimental results revealed that the differences between the language groups became clearer when the inhibitory control demands increased and that compared with the trilingual advantage, the bilingual advantage in inhibitory control emerged in more limited contexts.     

Brain potentials during language production in children and adults: An ERP study of the English past tense

The current study examines the neural correlates of 8-to-12-year-old children and adults producing inflected word forms, specifically regular vs. irregular past-tense forms in English, using a silent production paradigm. ERPs were time-locked to a visual cue for silent production of either a regular or irregular past-tense form or a 3rd person singular present tense form of a given verb (e.g., walked/sang vs. walks/sings). Subsequently, another visual stimulus cued participants for an overt vocalization of their response. ERP results for the adult group revealed a negativity 300–450 ms after the silent-production cue for regular compared to irregular past-tense forms. There was no difference in the present form condition. Children’s brain potentials revealed developmental changes, with the older children demonstrating more adult-like ERP responses than the younger ones. We interpret the observed ERP responses as reflecting combinatorial processing involved in regular (but not irregular) past-tense formation.     

英汉双语者二语口语产生中音韵编码过程的同化机制

本研究运用事件相关电位技术, 结合时空微态分割分析法, 考察英汉双语者二语口语产生过程中音韵编码过程的同化与顺应机制。研究中采用图词干扰即时命名任务, 比较英汉双语者的汉语产生过程中音韵编码的加工单元与汉语母语者的汉语产生过程还是与英语母语者的英语产生过程的特点类似。反应时结果发现汉汉组、英汉组与英英组都出现显著的音节效应。事件相关电位的结果发现英汉双语者的汉语产生过程中出现了音素效应, 与其英语产生过程的特点类似, 音素效应在英语和汉语的产生过程中都出现在图画呈现后的200~250 ms之间, 而汉语母语者的汉语产生过程中仅发现了音节效应, 出现在250~300 ms之间。时空微态分割分析发现英汉双语者在汉语产生的音韵编码过程与英语母语者在英语产生过程所对应的脑电微态成分相同, 仅在持续时间上存在显著差异; 其微态成分不同于汉语母语者的汉语产生过程。上述结果表明英汉双语者汉语产生的音韵编码过程与英语作为母语时的产生过程相似, 而与汉语作为母语时的产生过程不同。英汉双语者的汉语产生过程采用了母语同化机制。     

Retrieval of concrete words involves more contextual information than abstract words: multiple components for the concreteness effect

The current study used the directed forgetting paradigm in implicit and explicit memory to investigate the concreteness effect. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded to explore the neural basis of this phenomenon. The behavioral results showed a clear concreteness effect in both implicit and explicit memory tests; participants responded significantly faster to concrete words than to abstract words. The ERP results revealed a concreteness effect (N400) in both the encoding and retrieval phases. In addition, behavioral and ERP results showed an interaction between word concreteness and memory instruction (to-be-forgotten vs. to-be-remembered) in the late epoch of the explicit retrieval phase, revealing a significant concreteness effect only under the to-be-remembered instruction condition. This concreteness effect was realized as an increased P600-like component in response to concrete words relative to abstract words, likely reflecting retrieval of contextual details. The time course of the concreteness effect suggests advantages of concrete words over abstract words due to greater contextual information.     

Co-activation of syntax in bilingual language production

We report four experiments that examined whether bilinguals’ production of one language is affected by the syntactic properties of their other language. Greek–English and English–Greek highly proficient fluent bilinguals produced sentence completions following subject nouns whose translation had either the same or different number. We manipulated whether participants produced completions in the same language as the subject (the source language; one-language production) or the other language (the non-source language; two-language production), and whether they used only one language or both languages within the experimental session. The results demonstrated that the grammar systems of both languages were activated during both one-language and two-language production. The effects of the non-source language were particularly enhanced in two-language utterances, when both languages were used in the experiment, and when it was the bilinguals’ native language. We interpret our results in terms of a model of bilingual sentence production.     

认知灵活性对非熟练双语者语言转换的影响--一项ERPs研究*

采用 WCST 筛选出高低认知灵活性的非熟练汉英双语者,分别使用图片命名和语义范畴判断任务考察认知灵活性对双语者语言转换的影响。结果发现：(1)高认知灵活性被试的双语转换代价是对称的,其N2成分的平均波幅和峰值显著大于低认知灵活性被试,低认知灵活性被试的转换代价是非对称的;(2)高认知灵活性被试在语言产生任务中, L2重复条件下N2的峰值显著大于L1重复条件,出现L2重复优势效应;(3)在语言理解任务中,高低认知灵活性被试在L1重复条件下的N2峰值显著大于L2重复条件,两组均出现了L1重复优势效应。研究表明,抑制控制能力在语言产生与理解的双语转换中起着重要的作用,语言转换代价源于心理词典的字词识别系统之外。