Triangulation and adolescent development in the U.S. and Japan.

Using an indirect measure of family structure, relationships between parents and adolescents were studied in 99 U. S. and 60 Japanese families. As two-person relationships tend toward instability under stress, a third person may be drawn in to stabilize the system. Parents, for example, may avoid the tension in the marital relationship by focusing together on an adolescent's problem, or pull the adolescent into a coalition with one parent. Either way the parents are said to have "triangled" the adolescent. In this study, a relationship is found between parents avoiding tension in their own relationship and their tendency to triangle an adolescent. Triangled daughters, in both cultures, had lower scores on ego development, supporting the hypothesis that such patterns can be detrimental to the adolescent's personal development. The discussion includes comments on cross-cultural research.     

The Politics of Ethnic Identity Construction

This article examines the question of what transits in an ego identity status transition. It is argued that Marcia's (1966, 1967) ego identity statuses have different underlying structural organizations in the tradition of neo-Piagetian structural stage models (Snarey, Kohlberg, &; Noam, 1983). It is also argued that it is necessary to differentiate structure underlying the ego identity statuses from identity content to understand the meaning of ego identity status transitions during adolescent and adult life. Processes of change for both identity structure as well as identity content are proposed on the basis of qualitative case studies. Means of best assessing structural organizations underlying the ego identity statuses are proposed. Defining the actual organizational structures underlying the ego identity statuses presents a challenging and fruitful direction for future identity research.     

Suicidal tendencies and ego identity in adolescence

Studies distinguishing between adolescent suicide attempters and others usually deal with demographic, physiological, or familial contributing factors. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between ego identity development and suicidal inclinations at adolescence. The main hypothesis was that ego identity formation at adolescence may serve as a "buffering" force by providing stability, continuity, meaningfulness, social recognition, commitment, and inner strength against suicidal attempts. Two groups of adolescents, a suicidal group (n = 10) recruited from mental health clinics and a normative group (n = 30), were matched for intelligence, demographic variables, and socioeconomic status. The Adolescent Ego Identity Scale (AEIS; Tzuriel, 1984) and the Israeli Index of Potential Suicide (IIPS) based on Zung's (1974) scale were administered to both groups. The results indicated that the normative group scored significantly higher than did the suicidal group on all but one of the AEIS factors and lower on the IIPS. A MANOVA carried out on ego identity factors revealed a significant overall difference between the two groups. Univariate analyses indicated that most of the ego identity factors differentiated between the two groups. Negative correlations between AEIS and IIPS were found in both groups, especially between total AEIS score and IIPS in the normative group (r = -.89, p less than .001). The findings in general confirm the "buffering" force hypothesis. These preliminary results are discussed in regard to theoretical and preventive aspects.     

大学生自我同一性与亲子依恋、因果取向之间的关系

通过对536名大学生的问卷调查,考察了大学生的自我同一性状态与亲子依恋、因果取向之间的关系。结果表明:良好的亲子依恋有利于大学生的自我同一性形成,使大学生更可能处于同一性获得状态,避免同一性扩散。除直接影响外,亲子依恋以因果取向中的自主取向和非个人取向为中介对同一性状态产生重要的间接影响,从而揭示了亲子依恋对大学生自我同一性发挥影响的作用方式。     

Openness to Experience and Development of Adult Identity

ABSTRACT The formation of ego identity through exploration of alternatives and formation of commitments is a central issue in the transition from adolescence to adulthood (Erikson, 1959, Waterman, 1982) In 59 adults ranging in age from 18 to 30, independent identity scales were found to be positively correlated with age The construct of openness to experience was hypothesized to account for individual differences in identity development As predicted, openness to experience was positively correlated with ratings of current and past identity exploration, and negatively related to intensity of identity commitment A comparison of two methods of measuring ego identity showed that identity rating scales provide a more differentiated assessment of psychosocial development than does the identity status scoring method     

Trajectories of family management practices and early adolescent behavioral outcomes

Stage-environment fit theory was used to examine the reciprocal lagged relations between family management practices and early adolescent problem behavior during the middle school years. In addition, the potential moderating roles of family structure and of gender were explored. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to describe patterns of growth in family management practices and adolescents' behavioral outcomes and to detect predictors of interindividual differences in initial status and rate of change. The sample comprised approximately 1,000 adolescents between ages 11 years and 15 years. The results indicated that adolescents' antisocial behaviors and substance use increased and their positive behavioral engagement decreased over time. As adolescent age increased, parental knowledge of their adolescent's activities decreased, as did parental rule making and support. The level and rate of change in family management and adolescent behavioral outcomes varied by family structure and by gender. Reciprocal longitudinal associations between parenting practices and adolescent problem behavior were found. Specifically, parenting practices predicted subsequent adolescent behavior, and adolescent behavior predicted subsequent parenting practices. In addition, parental warmth moderated the effects of parental knowledge and rule making on adolescent antisocial behavior and substance use over time.     

Pubertal development and behavior: Hormonal activation of social and motivational tendencies

Adolescence is a time of dramatic changes including rapid physical growth, the onset of sexual maturation, the activation of new drives and motivations, and a wide array of social and affective changes and challenges. This review focuses on behavioral changes in this interval and is organized by the claim that a key set of these adolescent changes are part of a more general re-orientation of social behavior. More specifically we hypothesize that pubertal maturation is associated with the activation of social and motivational tendencies, which in turn influence behavior and emotion in adolescence depending upon interactions with social context. We focus on evidence for two examples of these motivational changes: (1) increases in sensation-seeking (motivational tendency to want to experience high-intensity, exciting experiences) and (2) stronger natural interest in—and pursuit of—contact with peers and potential romantic partners. We consider how these motivational changes contribute to the broader social re-orientation of adolescence, including exploration of social experiences, development of skills and knowledge relevant to taking on adult social roles, individuation from family, and establishment of an individual identity, all of which represent core developmental tasks during this period in the life span ( 9, 16 and 62). The paper also emphasizes the importance of investigating and understanding the direct influences of puberty on behavior and disentangling these from the broader set of changes during adolescent development.     

The influence of parent negative emotional expression on adolescents' perceptions of their relationships with their parents

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parent affective expression in interactions and adolescent perceptions of their relationship. Observational and self-report data were collected on 85 intact families with adolescents in grades 5 to 9 (n = 44 males, 41 females). Each parent and adolescent took part in two 8-minute conversations–one about an activity they reported enjoying together and one about a disagreement or area of conflict. Conversations were coded on a speaker turn basis for positive, negative, neutral, mixed, and altered affect (kappa = .76). Physical maturation was related to adolescent perceptions of increased negative communication quality in all parent-adolescent dyads. Stepwise regression analyses indicated that expression by fathers of negative and mixed affect significantly predicted adolescent perceptions of communication quality, psychological autonomy, and firm/lax control, in addition to the effects of adolescent pubertal maturation. Mother affective expression in interactions was less consistently related to adolescent perceptions of relationship satisfaction. Implications for the salience of father versus mother affective expression in interactions with adolescents are discussed.     

Gender identity conflicts in adolescents as motivation for suicide

One of the motivational factors for suicide in adolescents is examined in light of gender identity issues and conflicts. It is proposed that difficulties in the formation of a cohesive gender identity are related to the adolescent's motivation to attempt suicide. This paper makes use of Fast's (1984) distinction between "event-centered" and "self-centered" experiences in order to explore problems in the formation of gender identity with reference to regression to earlier stages of psychosexual development. Physiological changes and regressive pull may lead the adolescent to the "event-centered" mode of experience. Thus one minor event may become the focus of the adolescent's gender and self identities. The adolescent may then have regressive omnipotent fantasies of being able to change gender identity through suicidal acts.     

Religious Ego Identity and Its Relationship to Faith Maturity

The relationship between religious ego identity and religious faith maturity was investigated among college students (M age % 19.8 years) using J. E. Marcia's (1966) religious ego status classification system, which is based on the presence or absence in an individual of an exploration of religious values or beliefs and commitment to them; the system also contains a measure of religious faith maturity. Results showed that individuals with a diffusion status (no exploration, no commitment) were less mature in religious faith than those with a foreclosure status (no exploration, commitment), a moratorium status (exploration, no commitment), or those classified as achieved (exploration, commitment). Compared with individuals classified as foreclosed, achieved individuals integrated more effectively the religious faith maturity dimension of service to humanity and community as well as service of self to a transcendent reality.     

Factors associated with the mental health of adolescents when a parent has cancer

This study explored factors associated with the mental health in adolescents (ages 11-17; n = 54) within 12 months after a parent had been diagnosed with cancer. A control group was included (ages 11-17; n = 49). A demographic questionnaire, the SF-8 Health Survey, the Youth Self Report and the McMaster Family Assessment Device were used. Similar levels of psychological distress and healthy family functioning were reported in the clinical and the control group. No effect of gender of the ill parent and that of the adolescent was found. A negative correlation was found between the physical health of the ill parent and the mental health of the adolescent. Healthy family functioning correlated with less psychological distress in adolescents with a parent with cancer. Open communication, flexible problem solving and appropriate affective involvement were significant predictors for less psychological distress in the adolescents. The study concludes that a healthy family functioning facilitated the adolescent's adjustment to parental cancer.     

Grade, pubertal status, and gender-related variations in conflictual issues among adolescents

The purpose of this study was to describe adolescent perceptions of conflictual family issues, and to ascertain if the intensity of these issues is associated with adolescent grade in school, pubertal status, and gender. The sample was comprised of 279 junior high and senior high school students. Each participant completed a self-report measure of pubertal status, a demographic questionnaire, and the Issues Checklist. Principal factor analysis with varimax rotation of the Issues Checklist resulted in the retention of four factors accounting for 71.59% of the variance. Stepwise regression analyses were conducted for each emergent factor with grade in school, pubertal status, and gender serving as predictors. The results of these analyses indicated that the intensity of School Issues and Household Behavior Issues is greater among seventh and ninth graders than among eleventh graders. Self-Responsibility Issues were perceived as being most intense among transpubertal adolescents. Finally, boys perceived more intense conflict over Persistent Issues and Concerns than did girls.     

Contributions of Family Relationship Factors to the Identity Formation Process

This study tested the proposition that family relationship variables would be related in predictable ways to ego identity status. The authors administered measures of parental attachment, psychological separation, and ego identity status to 174 students from a large northeastern state university. The results indicated that women who experience greater parental attitudinal dependence and attachment and a modest degree of conflictual independence from mother tend to evidence more identity foreclosure and identity achievement and less diffusion. In addition, women who experience some degree of attachment to mother and attitudinal independence from mother are most likely to avoid diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium. Men who experience parental attitudinal independence are likely to be in the diffusion or moratorium statuses and not in the identity-achieved and foreclosure statuses.     

Ego identity, egocentrism, and formal operations

This study examined the relationship between ego identity and formal operations and egocentrism in an adolescent population. Results indicated significant positive correlations between ego identity and formal operations and between ego identity and grade in school. Multiple regression analysis revealed that grade in school explained 21 percent of the variance while formal operational thinking, egocentrism, and sex accounted for only an additional 2 percent of the variance.     

ABSTRACTS OF LITERATURE

This paper attempts to formulate dynamics based on clinical material from family sessions rather than based on individual reconstruction. It is believed that the identified adolescent patient regresses with narcissistic symptoms because, in the struggle for independence, he upsets the family equilibrium. The parents emerge from their adolescence with low self-esteem and the need for the support of external objects. The adolescent's separateness from the family recreates the problem for the parents and prevents his individual growth as well as his separation from the family.     

Affectivity: Regulation,Identity Formation,and Metaphorical Thought

ABSTRACT

Understanding affects, and their multiple roles in all aspects of the human condition and development, has more and more become a focus of study for contemporary psychoanalysis. Psychodynamic personality theories have always regarded affective life as pivotal to developmental experiences, the evolving structures of the personality, identity formation, and clinical processes. The centrality of emotion in development and affect regulation, as a maturational theme in the adolescent stage, are explored through the views afforded by object relations theory and ego psychology, intersubjectivity, the second separation individuation process, and unconscious metaphorical thought in the dream states of two clients and their therapist.     

Young adult identities and their pathways: a developmental and life course model

Developmental and life course studies of young adult identities have focused on 2 dimensions: subjective age and psychosocial maturity. This study examines the developmental synchrony of these 2 processes. In a longitudinal sample of young adults from Add Health (ages 18-22), a person-centered analysis of indicators of these dimensions identified 4 identity profiles. Two depict early and late patterns of identity; the others represent contrasting types of discordance: pseudo-adult, with subjective age more advanced than maturation level, and anticipatory, with subjective age less advanced than maturational level. The profiles vary by gender, socioeconomic status, and race-ethnicity, as well as by adolescent (ages 12-16) pubertal maturation, psychosocial adjustment, and family context. These results provide support for a more holistic, interdisciplinary understanding of adult identity and show that young adult identities in the Add Health sample follow differentiated paths into the adult years, with largely unknown consequences for the subsequent life course.     

Sex-specific pathways to early puberty, sexual debut, and sexual risk taking: tests of an integrated evolutionary-developmental model

The current study tested sex-specific pathways to early puberty, sexual debut, and sexual risk taking, as specified by an integrated evolutionary-developmental model of adolescent sexual development and behavior. In a prospective study of 238 adolescents (n = 129 girls and n = 109 boys) followed from approximately 12-18 years of age, we tested for longitudinal relations between ecological stressors, family relationships, pubertal maturation, self-perceived mate value, and sexual risk taking in both boys and girls. Consistent with the theory, (a) higher levels of familial and ecological stress predicted earlier sexual debut and greater sexual risk taking; (b) pubertal maturation partially mediated these relations among girls but not among boys; (c) father absence had unique effects on female sexual outcomes but not on male sexual outcomes; (d) higher self-perceived mate value directly predicted earlier sexual debut and, through it, greater sexual risk taking; and (e) relations between pubertal maturation and early sexual debut were partially mediated by higher self-perceived mate value in boys but not in girls. Discussion focuses on the contribution of an integrated evolutionary-developmental theory to the adolescent sexual health literature.