Relations among exercise type,self-objectification,and body image in the fitness centre environment: The role of reasons for exercise

ObjectiveThe study aimed to investigate different types of exercise, the role of exercise motivation and body image outcomes within the fitness centre environment.Design and methodParticipants were 571 female fitness class participants recruited from fitness centres. They ranged in age from 18 to 71 years and participated in a variety of fitness activities both within and outside of the fitness centre environment. Reasons for exercise, self-objectification, body esteem, and disordered eating symptomatology were assessed using questionnaire measures.ResultsTime spent exercising within the fitness centre environment was more highly related to body image and eating disturbance than time spent exercising outside of the fitness centre environment. Participation in cardio-based workouts (e.g., cardiovascular machines) was positively related to self-objectification, disordered eating behaviour, and appearance-related reasons for exercise, and negatively related to body esteem. In contrast, participation in yoga-based fitness classes was related to lower self-objectification and exercising more for health and fitness. Appearance-focused reasons for exercise were found to mediate the relationship between exercise types and self-objectification, disordered eating, and body esteem.ConclusionThe results show that the reasons women have for doing exercise provide a mechanism through which different types of exercise are associated with negative body image outcomes. Thus, despite the physical health-related benefits associated with regular physical activity, exercise motivated by appearance reasons (e.g., weight control) can lead to poorer body image in some women.     

Brief Report: Self-Objectification and Esteem in Young Women: The Mediating Role of Reasons for Exercise

In this study we investigated the interrelationships between self-objectification, reasons for exercise, body satisfaction, body esteem, and self-esteem. A questionnaire that assessed each of these constructs was completed by 104 female participants between the ages of 16 and 25 who exercised regularly at a fitness center. Self-objectification and appearance-related reasons for exercise were significantly negatively related to body satisfaction, body esteem, and self-esteem, and functional reasons for exercise were positively related to each of these outcome measures. Self-objectification also predicted the reasons women exercise. More important, reasons for exercise were found to mediate the relationships between self-objectification and body satisfaction, body esteem, and self-esteem. It was concluded that objectification theory can be extended usefully into the realm of exercise and that, among women who exercise, motivations for exercise account for the reduced body satisfaction and self-esteem for women high on self-objectification.     

Reasons for Exercise and Body Esteem: Men's Responses to Self-Objectification

In this study, we applied the construct of self-objectification to men, specifically to examine the role of reasons for exercise in men's responses to objectification. A questionnaire that assessed self-objectification, reasons for exercise, body esteem, and self-esteem was voluntarily completed by 153 Australian participants between the ages of 18 and 35 years (82 men and a comparison group of 71 women). Self-objectification and appearance-related reasons for exercise were significantly negatively related to body esteem for both men and women. Self-objectification was also positively related to appearance-related reasons for exercise. The latter was found to mediate the relationship between self-objectification and body esteem for both men and women. Men were just as likely as women to exercise for appearance-related reasons. Together, the results suggest that objectification may be sensibly applied to men and that exercising for appearance-related reasons appears to exacerbate the negative impact that self-objectification has on both men's and women's esteem.     

THE RELATIONSHIP OF YOGA, BODY AWARENESS, AND BODY RESPONSIVENESS TO SELF-OBJECTIFICATION AND DISORDERED EATING

Study 1 tested whether yoga practice is associated with greater awareness of and responsiveness to bodily sensations, lower self-objectification, greater body satisfaction, and fewer disordered eating attitudes. Three samples of women (43 yoga, 45 aerobic, and 51 nonyoga/nonaerobic practitioners) completed questionnaire measures. As predicted, yoga practitioners reported more favorably on all measures. Body responsiveness, and, to some extent, body awareness significantly explained group differences in self-objectification, body satisfaction, and disordered eating attitudes. The mediating role of body awareness, in addition to body responsiveness, between self-objectification and disordered eating attitudes was also tested as proposed in objectification theory ( Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 ). Body responsiveness, but not awareness, mediated the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating attitudes. This finding was replicated in Study 2 in a sample of female undergraduate students. It is concluded that body responsiveness and, to some extent, body awareness are related to self-objectification and its consequences.     

The role of state mindfulness during yoga in predicting self-objectification and reasons for exercise

ObjectivesObjectification theory is a useful framework for understanding how individuals internalize the sexual objectification of male and female bodies. This internalization, called self-objectification, can result in negative psychological and behavioral outcomes (e.g., body shame, disordered eating). Exercise that uses mindfulness to draw attention to the body's function and sensations rather than appearance may be one way to minimize self-objectification and improve associated outcomes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore how state mindfulness during exercise may associate with change in self-objectification, body image variables, and reasons for exercise.DesignThis study prospectively followed participants (N = 148, 80% female) from six yoga classes that met 2–3 times a week across an 8-week period.MethodRepeated measures MANOVAs were used to examine change over time in state mindfulness, self-objectification, physical self-concept, and reasons for exercise. Regression analysis was used to examine how state mindfulness predicted change in outcome variables.ResultsMANOVAs revealed significant decreases in self-objectification and increases in physical self-concept, health/fitness-related reasons for exercise, and state mindfulness. Further, results indicated that mindfulness during exercise was linked with decreases in self-objectification and increases in more internal reasons for exercise over time.ConclusionsState mindfulness plays a role in predicting change in self-objectification and reasons for exercise during yoga practice.     

Self-objectification,body image disturbance,and eating disorder symptoms in young Australian children

Self-objectification has been examined extensively in adult populations. Despite theoretical evidence suggesting that children may also be vulnerable to experiencing self-objectification, whether children do self-objectify has not been determined. Accordingly, the present study examined the degree to which children self-objectify. The prevalence of body image and eating disturbances in this population, and the relationship between self-objectification and these disturbances, were also investigated. Results from over 250 boys and girls aged 6–11 years revealed that young girls report levels of self-objectification that are similar to those observed among older girls and women. Self-objectification was also found to be meaningfully related to body image and eating disturbances in children. A significant proportion of children reported body dissatisfaction and a minority engaged in disordered eating behaviours in the four weeks prior to the assessment. These results suggest that children may be at risk of experiencing the negative psychological outcomes associated with self-objectification.     

A naturalistic study of fat talk and its behavioral and affective consequences

Fat talk is a style of verbal expression among young women involving negative self-statements, complaints about physical appearance, and weight management. This research used ecological momentary assessment to examine the impact of naturalistic fat talk experiences on body dissatisfaction, body checking, negative affect, and disordered eating behaviors. We examined trait self-objectification as a moderator. Sixty-five female college students completed a baseline questionnaire and responded to questions when randomly prompted by palm pilot devices for five days. Results indicated fat talk is common and associated with greater body dissatisfaction, body checking, negative affect, and disordered eating behaviors. Fat talk participation was associated with greater body checking than overhearing fat talk. Greater trait self-objectification was associated with greater body dissatisfaction and body checking following fat talk. These results suggest that fat talk negatively impacts the cognitions, affect, and behavior of young women and has increased negative effects for women higher in self-objectification.     

Self-discrepancies and vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating.

Two studies explored the relevance of self-discrepancies for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. In Study 1, actual:ideal self-discrepancies of female undergraduates correlated with body shape dissatisfaction independent of Ss' body mass and number of appearance-related self-beliefs; actual:ought discrepancy was discriminantly associated with anorexic-related attitudes and behaviors. In Study 2 (using a mixed-gender sample), bulimic-related behaviors were associated with a form of actual:ideal discrepancy (unfulfilled positive potential) whereas anorexic-related symptoms were associated with actual:ought discrepancy. Both genders showed the predicted relations between self-discrepancies and disordered eating, and the predicted associations remained even when appearance-related attributes were excluded from scoring of self-discrepancies.     

Body image across the life span in adult women: the role of self-objectification

This study aimed to investigate women's body image across the entire life span from within the theoretical perspective provided by objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T.-A. Roberts, 1997). In a cross-sectional study, a sample of 322 women ranging in age from 20 to 84 years completed a questionnaire measuring body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, and its proposed consequences. Although body dissatisfaction remained stable across the age range, self-objectification, habitual body monitoring, appearance anxiety, and disordered eating symptomatology all significantly decreased with age. Self-objectification was found to mediate the relationship between age and disordered eating symptomatology. It was concluded that objectification theory helps clarify the processes involved in the changes in body image that occur with age.     

Self-objectification, habitual body monitoring, and body dissatisfaction in older European American women: exploring age and feminism as moderators

This study examined the influence of feminist attitudes on self-objectification, habitual body monitoring, and body dissatisfaction in middle age and older women. The participants were 138 European American heterosexual women ranging in age from 40 to 87 years old. Consistent with previous research, self-objectification and habitual body monitoring were positively correlated with body dissatisfaction and, self-objectification and habitual body monitoring remained stable across the lifespan. While age did not moderate the relationship between self-objectification and body dissatisfaction, age was found to moderate the relationship between habitual body monitoring and body dissatisfaction such that the relationship was smaller for older women than for middle-aged women. Interestingly, feminist attitudes were not significantly correlated with body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, or habitual body monitoring, and endorsement of feminist attitudes was not found to moderate the relationship between self-objectification or habitual body monitoring and body dissatisfaction. Potential implications for older women are discussed.     

BUYING A BEAUTY STANDARD OR DREAMING OF A NEW LIFE? EXPECTATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH MEDIA IDEALS

This study explored college women's ideas regarding how their lives would change if their appearance were consistent with a media-supported female beauty ideal. Participants rated self-generated life changes they associated with looking like a media ideal in terms of likelihood and positivity. Women's tendency to link positive and likely life expectations with looking like the media ideal was significantly associated with both internalization of media ideals and appearance-related dissatisfaction. However, internalization fully mediated the relationship between expectations and appearance-related dissatisfaction. Results are discussed in terms of implications for understanding the nature of internalization and implications for the design of programs targeted at reducing appearance-related dissatisfaction and eating disordered behaviors.     

Body image dissatisfaction: gender differences in eating attitudes,self-esteem,and reasons for exercise

Two hundred and thirty-five adolescents completed a questionnaire on the subject of eating attitudes, self-esteem, reasons for exercise, and their ideal versus current body size and shape. As predicted, boys were as likely to want to be heavier as lighter, whereas very few girls desired to be heavier. Only girls associated body dissatisfaction with the concept of self-esteem. Male self-esteem was not affected by body dissatisfaction. Specific reasons for exercise were found to correlate with low self-esteem and disordered eating, regardless of sex. The results are discussed in relation to burgeoning published research in this area.     

A MEDIATIONAL MODEL LINKING SELF-OBJECTIFICATION, BODY SHAME, AND DISORDERED EATING

This study tests a mediational model of disordered eating derived from objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). The model proposes that the emotion of body shame mediates the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating. Two samples of undergraduate women ( n = 93, n = 111) completed self-report questionnaires assessing self-objectification, body shame, anorexic and bulimic symptoms, and dietary restraint. Findings in both samples supported the mediational model. Additionally, a direct relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating was also observed. Implications and future research directions are discussed.     

Those speedos become them: the role of self-objectification in gay and heterosexual men's body image

Objectification Theory proposes that membership in sexually objectifying Western societies gradually socializes women to adopt an observer's perspective on their physical self. This leads to negative consequences, including body shame and restricted eating behavior. The authors extend this framework to investigate a subgroup of men, namely gay men, who also exist in a subculture that emphasizes and values physical appearance. Study 1 investigated trait differences in self-objectification and body image among gay and heterosexual men. Analyses indicated that gay men scored higher on self-objectification, body shame, body dissatisfaction, and drive for thinness. In Study 2, the authors experimentally manipulated state self-objectification and found that for gay men, increasing state self-objectification resulted in greater body shame and dissatisfaction and more restrained eating. Together, these results offer strong support to Objectification Theory as a useful framework from within which to view the experience of gay men.     

A longitudinal study of pubertal timing and extreme body change behaviors among adolescent boys and girls

Recent studies have examined the prevalence of disordered eating and other health risk behaviors among adolescent boys and girls. However, these studies generally have not examined predictors of these behaviors, and have not embedded the investigations within a theoretical framework. This study employed a longitudinal design to evaluate the validity of a biosocial model in explaining health risk behaviors related to extreme body change strategies (disordered eating, exercise dependence, use of food supplements, steroid use) among adolescents. The participants were 430 adolescent boys (mean age = 13.33 years) and 451 adolescent girls (mean age = 13.28 years) who completed measures of pubertal timing, perceived popularity with peers, body dissatisfaction, focus on sport, involvement in competitive sport, strategies to lose weight, strategies to increase muscle, disordered eating, use of food supplements and steroids, and exercise dependence. It was found that both early and late maturing girls were at greatest risk of engaging in health risk behaviors, whereas boys demonstrated more variability in the relationship between pubertal timing and extreme body change behaviors. The results of this study provide important insights into the role of pubertal development in the adoption of extreme body change behaviors among adolescents.     

Conflicted Gender Identity, Body Dissatisfaction, and Disordered Eating in Adult Men and Women

The relation between gender identity and body dissatisfaction as well as disordered eating was examined in a population-based sample of Finnish adults aged 18 to 44 years (N?=?1,142). Participants with a conflicted gender identity were compared to controls matched on age and biological sex. Participants with a conflicted gender identity showed higher levels of body dissatisfaction, women with a conflicted gender identity also showed more eating disturbance than controls. Among men with a conflicted gender identity, male–male sexual experience was associated with more body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Among women with a conflicted gender identity, female–female sexual experience was related to less body dissatisfaction. Possible explanations for these findings and the potential clinical implications are discussed.     

Influence des médias,insatisfaction envers le poids et l’apparence et troubles alimentaires selon le genre

The aim of the study was to explore gender differences in weight dissatisfaction, body dissatisfaction, media influence, use of dieting and excessive exercise, and disordered eating among a sample of 405 adolescents and young adults (277 girls and 128 boys) aged between 15 and 26. Girls were more likely to want to lose weight, whereas boys were more likely to want to gain weight and use excessive exercise. Gender differences have been found in body dissatisfaction and media influence, and among participants with disordered eating too. The findings brought out the gender-specific patterns of media influence, body image disturbances and disordered eating.     

Gender Differences in Parental Influences on Adolescent Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating

This study explored gender differences in the relationship between parental influences and body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among offspring. Participants were 221 male and 380 (63%) female French high school students of mean age 16 (SD?=?.95) years old, from the Toulouse area, who completed a survey exploring parental influences, body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness and bulimic symptoms. Girls (compared to boys) perceived more maternal comments regarding both their own weight and shape, and the importance of physical appearance. Parental variables explained a larger amount of the variance in girls’ body dissatisfaction and disordered eating (compared to boys’). Findings support both a cumulative model and a gender-linked model of transmission of attitudes and behaviors related to shape and eating.     

Prevalence and correlates of disordered eating in female figure skaters

ObjectivesThe purposes of this study were to (a) examine the prevalence of disordered eating among female figure skaters, (b) compare levels of disordered eating between skaters and their same-age peers, (c) compare levels of disordered eating between elite skaters and their sub-elite counterparts, and (d) examine general and sport-related correlates of disordered eating (i.e., four sport-related weight pressures, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, positive and negative perfectionism, self-esteem, and athletic identity).DesignThis study employed a cross-sectional design.MethodsParticipants completed paper–pencil surveys, including measures for disordered eating, four sport-related weight pressures, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, positive and negative perfectionism, self-esteem, and athletic identity. Participants included 272 female figure skaters ages 12–25 (M = 15.63) across five US states.ResultsThirteen percent of participants scored within range of problematic eating attitudes and behaviors but were no more symptomatic than their same-age peers when compared to existing normative data. Levels of disordered eating did not significantly differ between those competing at the elite and sub-elite level. After controlling for body mass index and age, disordered eating was significantly predicted by self-consciousness of weight and appearance, general and sport-related body dissatisfaction, and positive perfectionism.ConclusionsDisordered eating occurs in female figure skaters across competitive levels. Concern over weight and appearance, dissatisfaction with one's body in general and in sport, and positive perfectionism may serve as important tools in the prevention and detection of disordered eating in female figure skaters.     

The Role of Self-Objectification in the Experience of Women with Eating Disorders

Objectification theory has linked self-objectification to negative emotional experiences and disordered eating behavior in cultures that sexually objectify the female body. This link has not been empirically tested in a clinical sample of women with eating disorders. In the present effort, 209 women in residential treatment for eating disorders completed self-report measures of self-objectification, body shame, media influence, and drive for thinness on admission to treatment. Results demonstrated that the internalization of appearance ideals from the media predicted self-objectification, whereas using the media as an informational source about appearance and feeling pressured to conform to media ideals did not. Self-objectification partially mediated the relationship between internalized appearance ideals and drive for thinness; internalized appearance ideals continued to be an independent predictor of variance. In accordance with objectification theory, body shame partially mediated the relationship between self-objectification and drive for thinness in women with eating disorders; self-objectification continued to be an independent predictor of variance. These results illustrate the importance of understanding and targeting the experience of self-objectification in women with eating disorders or women at risk for eating disorders.