为什么到手的金牌会“飞走”：竞赛中 “Choking”现象

“Choking”定义为,习惯的运动执行过程发生衰变的现象。其现象主要发生在比赛的关键时刻,或重大的赛事中。本文概述竞赛中的“Choking”现象及有关的定义,并进一步讨论有关的理论和研究中存在的问题。运动心理学家认为,“Choking”机制与运动焦虑有直接的联系。而社会心理学家认为,“Choking”的机制是,由于运动员有意识地控制运动过程,导致运动技术发生改变。理论上的分歧,使心理学家很难为运动员提出一个行之有效地预防“Choking”的方案。文章认为,当前的“Choking”理论过于简单地解释“Choking”现象,导致了实践中出现的矛盾。在综述这些问题的基础上,文章进一步讨论了一个“Choking”理论的“综合模式”。该理论模式强调多因素原则。在压力条件下,分析“Choking”机制应考虑任务特征和技术水平的因素。文章根据这一理论模式,建议运动员在比赛中,应分析具体情况,选择一个适合的应付压力的策略,是可以减少竞赛中“Choking”现象的。最后,文章建议了3个今后研究的方向。     

有关工作记忆的压力下"Choking"

压力下“Choking”（Choking under pressure）是指在压力下,一种习惯的作业过程发生衰变的现象。最近研究发现,工作记忆高的个体更容易出现压力下“Choking”,原因可能是由于工作记忆高的个体在解决问题时更依赖于工作记忆系统,支持了干扰说。这方面的研究存在着实验材料过于单一、大多采用行为实验而很少采用现代神经科学技术进行研究等问题,这可能也是未来研究的方向。     

青少年篮球运动员"Choking"心理机制的实验研究

Choking现象是指在压力条件下一种习惯的运动过程发生衰变的现象.本研究以28名专业青少年篮球运动员为对象,设置高压和低压两种实验条件,采用被试内平衡实验设计方法,揭示了青少年篮球运动员Choking现象产生的心理机制.研究表明:(1)青少年篮球运动员的公众自我意识、竞赛特质焦虑和积极应对方式能有效解释37.5%的Choking指数变异,公众自我意识对Choking指数有显著的回归效应(β=0.41);(2)青少年篮球运动员的竞赛特质焦虑、自我意识、应对方式三者之间有一定的联系.     

口语产生中的认知年老化及其神经机制

综述了口语产生的认知年老化现象及其认知神经机制, 总结了年龄因素对口语产生各阶段的影响及认知机制, 主要从从舌尖效应、同音词的图片命名及其启动效应等方面进行了阐述。在此基础上阐述了关于口语产生认知年老化的理论：激活不充分假说、传递不足假说和抑制不足假说, 从不同角度对认知年老化进行了分析。总结了采用fMRI和ERP技术所进行的口语产生认知年老化过程的认知神经科学研究, 概括了其认知神经机制及其发生的时间进程, 重点阐述了舌尖效应发生的神经机制。最后, 从“认知年老化”和“口语产生”这两个研究领域, 对口语产生认知年老化的研究提出了展望。     

协作抑制的认知机制

协作抑制是指当人们在一个记忆小组中一起提取信息的时候,小组提取的信息总量比等量个体提取的信息总量要少.心理学研究者致力于从认知角度对该现象进行解释,主要的理论解释有提取策略破坏假说和提取抑制假说.前者认为小组成员的提取结果对组内其他成员的信息组织策略产生了干扰,导致小组的提取成绩低.而后者认为小组内成员的提取结果会抑制其他成员对非提取项目的表征,降低小组协作提取能力,出现协作抑制.本文对两种理论假说的提出背景,基本观点,证据支持及现有争论进行了介绍,同时指出了未来的研究应关注于对两种机制的关键矛盾点进行区别性检验、对不同认知机制在不同条件下成立可靠性的检验以及通过对编码阶段进行操控来进一步考察协作抑制的认知机制.     

行为生命周期假设在慢性病防治中的应用

目前,慢性病已成为妨害人民健康的主要疾病,是我国重要的公共卫生问题,但人们并没有对此给予重视。本文运用行为经济学的理论与方法,对此进行分析解释,认为行为生命周期假说能够有效解释此种现象,并可以通过开展群体活动、完善机制和设立名义账户等措施来改变居民的行为方式,从而有效地防治慢性病。     

行为生命周期假设在慢性病防治中的应用

目前,慢性病已成为妨害人民健康的主要疾病,是我国重要的公共卫生问题,但人们并没有对此给予重视.本文运用行为经济学的理论与方法,对此进行分析解释,认为行为生命周期假说能够有效解释此种现象,并可以通过开展群体活动、完善机制和设立名义账户等措施来改变居民的行为方式,从而有效地防治慢性病.     

赌博游戏中的near-miss效应

near-miss效应是指在赌博中, 与一般的输钱和赢钱相比, “几乎赢(near-miss)”的输钱会诱发个体更高的生理唤醒和更强的赌博动机, 从而导致个体持续赌博的一种现象, 是导致赌博成瘾的主要诱因之一。针对这种现象的研究范式大致有三种：老虎机/类老虎机任务、轮盘任务和刮刮乐彩票任务。这种现象的理论解释目前主要有认知曲解假说、控制幻觉理论和受挫假说。near-miss效应的脑机制和病理研究才刚刚起步, 所涉及到的脑功能区域主要包括脑岛、腹侧纹状体等。未来的研究应在near-miss效应发生机制的理论模型建构、研究范式多样化、研究技术多模态化、病理机制和临床干预等方面进一步展开。     

为什么会出现“舌尖现象”?——TOT现象发生机制之争

舌尖现象(tip-of-the-tongue,TOT)是一种普遍发生的现象,但是发生TOT的对象、情景、机制等却是特殊和复杂的。因此,它引起了研究者的关注,尤其是在其产生机制上更是存在着很多争论。国外研究者提出了部分激活理论、传递缺陷理论、障碍物假说、神经网络模型、元认知理论等。但研究者大多都基于单一条件或情景来探讨TOT的产生,因此提出的理论的使用范围,解释广度等均有局限。关于TOT依然有许多疑惑,同时也存在值得探讨的课题。     

知晓感和学习判断产生机制的实验研究

以汉语配对词为实验材料,在已有实验研究的基础上,采用干扰模式进一步探讨了关于知晓感(Feeling of knowing)和学习判断(Judgment of learning)产生机制的四种理论假说,即线索熟悉性假说、目标提取假说、可接近性假说和竞争性假说。实验结果表明:在干扰条件下,知晓感和学习判断符合竞争性假说。     

Alleviating Choking: The Sounds of Distraction

“Choking” is defined as a critical deterioration in the execution of habitual processes as a result of an elevation in anxiety levels under perceived pressure, leading to substandard performance. In the current study, music was used in a “dual-task” paradigm to facilitate performance under pressure. Three “choking-susceptible” experienced female basketball players were purposively sampled from 41 screened players. Participants completed 240 basketball free throws in a single-case A₁-B₁-A₂-B₂ design (A phases = “low-pressure” and B phases = “high-pressure”), with the music intervention occurring during the B₂ phase. Following completion of the phases, an interview was conducted to examine perceptions of choking and cognitions associated with the effects of the music lyrics. Participants improved performance in the B₂ phase, and explained that choking resulted from an increase in public self-awareness (S-A). The music intervention decreased S-A, and enabled participants to minimize explicit monitoring of execution and reduce general distractibility.     

Choking under pressure: self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance

Choking under pressure is defined as performance decrements under circumstances that increase the importance of good or improved performance. A model for choking on coordination and skill tasks is proposed, holding that the pressure increases the conscious attention to the performer's own process of performance and that this increased conscious attention disrupts the automatic or overlearned nature of the execution. Six experiments provided data consistent with this model. Three studies showed that increased attention to one's own process of performance resulted in performance decrements. Three other studies showed similar decrements produced by situational manipulations of pressure (i.e., implicit competition, a cash incentive, and audience-induced pressure). Individuals low in dispositional self-consciousness were shown to be more susceptible to choking under pressure than those high in it.     

Choking under the pressure of a positive stereotype: gender identification and self-consciousness moderate men's math test performance

Choking under pressure occurs when an individual underperforms due to situational pressure. The present study examined whether being the target of a positive social stereotype regarding math ability causes choking among men. Gender identification and self-consciousness were hypothesized to moderate the effect of math-gender stereotypes on men's math test performance. Men high in self-consciousness but low in gender identification significantly underperformed when exposed to gender-relevant test instructions. No significant effects were found under a gender-irrelevant condition. These findings are discussed in the contexts of research on stereotype threat, stereotype lift, and choking under pressure.     

When high-powered people fail: working memory and "choking under pressure" in math

We examined the relation between pressure-induced performance decrements, or "choking under pressure," in mathematical problem solving and individual differences in working memory capacity. In cognitively based academic skills such as math, pressure is thought to harm performance by reducing the working memory capacity available for skill execution. Results demonstrated that only individuals high in working memory capacity were harmed by performance pressure, and, furthermore, these skill decrements were limited to math problems with the highest demands on working memory capacity. These findings suggest that performance pressure harms individuals most qualified to succeed by consuming the working memory capacity that they rely on for their superior performance.     

Limiting motor skill knowledge via incidental training protects against choking under pressure

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review - The paradoxical harmful effects of motivation and incentives on skilled performance (“choking under pressure”) are observed in a wide variety of...     

Inherent directionality of “even if” counterfactual conditionals

In this research, we investigate whether semifactual conditionals such as “even if there had been an A, there would have been a B” are understood by thinking initially of the antecedent “A”, as was found with factual conditionals. The “inherent directionality” hypothesis assumes that for the comprehension of most relational statements, a presuppositional element (i.e. the “relatum”) is initially established. For “even if”, both terms could work as “relatum”. This is because on the one hand, people tend to infer “B” from “A” and “not-A” and, on the other hand, “B” could work as a pragmatic presupposition. In the present experiment, semifactual and factual conditionals were tested with a sentence-picture verification task. Results were consistent with the “inherent directionality” hypothesis: only “if then” factual conditionals, but not semifactuals, showed a preference for reasoning from the antecedent, with faster verifications.     

Choking under pressure: The role of fear of negative evaluation

Objective

Conceptual models and predictors of choking under pressure (i.e., choking) have been proposed, but the role of fear of negative evaluation remains largely unknown. The purpose of the current study was to determine the degree to which fear of negative evaluation (FNE) may predispose athletes to choking.

Design and method

138 Experienced basketball players participated in a pre-selection stage, which involved completing a set of questionnaires that included the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation-II (BFNE-II) questionnaire. Based on the scores from the BFNE-II, 34 athletes, categorized as either low- or high-FNE, were selected to perform basketball shots from five different areas of the court under low- and high-pressure phases. Shooting performance was evaluated based on the total number of successful shots out of 50 attempts.

Results

Results indicated that the high-FNE athletes displayed a significant increase in anxiety and a significant decrease in performance from low- to high-pressure phases. The low-FNE group exhibited only minimal changes in anxiety throughout the study and was able to maintain performance under pressure. Further mediation analysis investigating significant difference in performance between FNE groups within the high-pressure phase indicated that that cognitive anxiety was a partial mediator between FNE group and performance, but somatic anxiety was not.

Conclusions

Findings extend the existing choking literature by providing empirical support for the role of FNE in the context of the self-presentation model of choking.     

Choking under pressure: multiple routes to skill failure

Poor performance in pressure-filled situations, or "choking under pressure," has largely been explained by two different classes of theories. Distraction theories propose that choking occurs because attention needed to perform the task at hand is coopted by task-irrelevant thoughts and worries. Explicit monitoring theories claim essentially the opposite-that pressure prompts individuals to attend closely to skill processes in a manner that disrupts execution. Although both mechanisms have been shown to occur in certain contexts, it is unclear when distraction and/or explicit monitoring will ultimately impact performance. The authors propose that aspects of the pressure situation itself can lead to distraction and/or explicit monitoring, differentially harming skills that rely more or less on working memory and attentional control. In Experiments 1-2, it is shown that pressure that induces distraction (involving performance-contingent outcomes) hurts rule-based category learning heavily dependent on attentional control. In contrast, pressure that induces explicit monitoring of performance (monitoring by others) hurts information-integration category learning thought to run best without heavy demands on working memory and attentional control. In Experiment 3, the authors leverage knowledge about how specific types of pressure impact performance to design interventions to eliminate choking. Finally, in Experiment 4, the selective effects of monitoring-pressure are replicated in a different procedural-based task: the serial reaction time task. Skill failure (and success) depends in part on how the performance environment influences attention and the extent to which skill execution depends on explicit attentional control.     

A qualitative examination of choking under pressure in team sport

ObjectivesAs choking in sport has only been examined to date through athletes performing individual sports and/or closed skills, this study uses a qualitative methodology to provide a unique insight into choking within the team sport setting.Design and methodsThrough individual semi-structured interviews, the experiences of eight athletes who choked under pressure regularly whilst playing a team sport were examined in detail.ResultsThe participants perceived their choking episodes were associated with a range of antecedents, mechanisms, moderators and consequences. Many of which were similar to those found within individual sports/closed skills; although differences were noted. This study supports the suggestion by Hill, Hanton, Matthews, and Fleming (2010a) that choking in sport may be caused by distraction, debilitative anxiety and low perceived control, and that its consequence is a significant drop in performance.ConclusionsThe study extends the choking literature and offers information for practitioners working with teams.     

A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests

Paradoxical performance effects (‘choking under pressure’) are defined as the occurrence of inferior performance despite striving and incentives for superior performance. Experimental demonstrations of these effects on tasks analogous to athletic performance and the theories that may explain them are reviewed. At present, attentional theories seem to offer the most complete explanation of the processes underlying paradoxical performance effects. In particular, choking may result from distraction or from the interference of self-focused attention with the execution of automatic responses. Experimental findings of paradoxical performance decrements are associated with four pressure variables: audience presence, competition, performance-contingent rewards and punishments, and ego relevance of the task. The mediating factors of task complexity, expectancies, and individual differences are discussed.