Mixture Models of Categorization

Many currently popular models of categorization are either strictly parametric (e.g., prototype models, decision bound models) or strictly nonparametric (e.g., exemplar models) (F. G. Ashby & L. A. Alfonso-Reese, 1995, Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 39, 216-233). In this article, a family of semiparametric classifiers is investigated where categories are represented by a finite mixture distribution. The advantage of these mixture models of categorization is that they contain several parametric models and nonparametric models as a special case. Specifically, it is shown that both decision bound models (F. G. Ashby & W. T. Maddox, 1992, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 16, 598-612; 1993, Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 37, 372-400) and the generalized context model (R. M. Nosofsky, 1986, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 39-57) can be interpreted as two extreme cases of a common mixture model. Furthermore, many other (semiparametric) models of categorization can be derived from the same generic mixture framework. In this article, several examples are discussed and a parameter estimation procedure for fitting these models is outlined. To illustrate the approach, several specific models are fitted to a data set collected by S. C. McKinley and R. M. Nosofsky (1995, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 128-148). The results suggest that semi-parametric models are a promising alternative for future model development.     

归类及推理研究的几个数学理论模型

归类是认知心理学的一个重要研究领域 ,而在归类基础上的特征推理及预测则更为重要。该文对经典的归类研究作一简略的述评 ,同时概述包含有复杂推理过程的归类学习研究的新进展 ,重点介绍三种有关样例推理及归类预测的数学模型———情境模型、多阶情境模型和理性模型 ,以及它们之间的内在联系。     

Behavioral Microanalysis of Helping Interactions Between Mothers and Adult Children with Mental Retardation

Although direct observation has provided much information regarding caregiver-care recipient interactions, our understanding of the applications of this technique remains incomplete. This study expands upon earlier observational work by examining adults with mental retardation (MR) and their family caregivers in the home setting. Specialized computer software was used to conduct real-time observation and recording of interactional styles of maternal caregivers of eight younger (M = 23 years old) and eight older (M = 49 years old) MR adults during two cognitive tasks: block design and card sorting. Differences in the amount and type of assistance provided by the caregiver were examined by coding the occurrence and duration of seven interactional behaviors. The results demonstrated that the caregivers of the younger adults used more positive statements and modeling/gestural prompts, whereas the caregivers of the older adults provided more physical assistance and performed more of the tasks themselves. More importantly, this project provided information regarding interactions between MR adults and their maternal caregivers and demonstrated the utility of computer-assisted data collection technology with a community-based, nondemented population.     

分类中相似性的理论与模型

相似性在分类的原型理论、样例理论、定义理论和理论解释观中都扮演着重要的角色。人们对相似性的研究由来已久,但是它在分类的领域中至今仍是一个相对模糊的概念,这部分地由于揭示相似性的真正机制将涉及到复杂的信息加工过程。本文以分类中的相似性为出发点介绍了近期相似性研究的一些理论与模型并在此基础上对概念和分类领域中的相似性研究进行了分析和总结。     

归类的相似性对比模型研究综述

本文阐述了近期归类中的相似性对比模型的研究,首先介绍了相似性对比的空间模型、基于特征的对比模型以及最近提出的结构匹配模型,并且详细阐述结构匹配模型观点以及它的应用方面的研究,旨在抛砖引玉,引起更多的人们来关注本领域的研究与发展。     

群体交叉分类效应的代数模型及其潜在加工过程

交叉分类被认为是一种能够有效减少群际偏见的方法。交叉分类效应的代数模型主要包括平均模型、相加模型和等价模型,各个模型都有自己成立的证据,其中支持相加模型的研究证据最多。尽管如此,交叉分类效应的代数模型有很明显的局限,即要求所有进行交叉的类别维度权重相等,这与真实社会情境是相矛盾的。交叉分类的潜在加工过程主要有基于认知角度的类别差异模型和基于动机角度的社会认同两种比较成熟的理论,前者又分为类别差异消除模型和类别差异减少模型。     

空间情境模型中的空间关系

1　前言　　在语言理解过程中 ,人们不仅可以建立和更新语言的文字表征 (ｔｅｘｔ ｂａｓｅｄｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ)或较精确的命题表征 (ｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎａｌｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ) ,而且会建立和更新对语言描述的情境的心理是表征(ｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｍｏｄｅｌｓｏｒｍｅｎｔａｌｍｏｄｅｌｓ) [1 ,2 ] 。Ｚｗａａｎ和Ｒａｄｖａｎｓｋｙ将情境表征分为五个维度 ,时间、空间、因果关系、意图和主角 ,其中空间情境表征是最重要的 ,也是研究最多的维度[3] 。2　空间情境模型的组织　　语言理解产生的空间情境模型的…     

Spatial Mental Models in Linear Reasoning

There is ample evidence that linear syllogisms are solved by constructing mental models, which semantically represent states in the world (Evans, Newstead, &; Byrne, 1993; Vandierendonck &; De Vooght, 1996 a). Such models are built by combining the information presented in the premises into an integrated representation, which is often thought of as spatial. The present article (a) presents evidence for an integrated spatial representation of premise information and (b) proposes a model construction process based on scanning processes that locate the position where new information is to be integrated into the spatial model.     

高层管理者的心智模式研究

高层管理者的心智模式对企业经营及绩效有着非常重要的影响.本文首先对不同学派关于心智模式的定义进行了简要的回顾,在此基础上,对高层管理者心智模式的内涵进行了界定.其次,从知识的视角,进一步把高层管理者心智模式的构成要素分为知识体系、信念体系和改善体系等三类.最后,从企业决策、企业文化与管理风格、组织设计、战略决策等四个方面阐述了高层管理者心智模式对企业管理活动的影响.     

Bias in Conditional Inference: Implications for Mental Models and Mental Logic

Three experiments are reported in which subjects are given the opportunity to make any of the four inferences associated with conditional statements: modus ponens (MP), denial of the antecedent (DA), affirmation of the consequent (AC), and modus tollens (MT). The primary purpose of the research was to establish the generality and robustness of polarity biases that may be occasioned by systematic rotation of negative components in the conditional rules. In Experiments 1 & 2, three forms of conditionals were used: “if (not) p then (not) q”, “(not) p only if (not) q” and “(not) q if (not) p”. Experiment 1 used a conclusion evaluation task, whereas Experiment 2 used a conclusion production task. In Experiment 3, thematic conditionals were presented with and without a preceding scenario.

The biases investigated were (a) affirmative premise bias—the tendency to draw more inferences from affirmative premises and (b) negative conclusion bias—the tendency to draw more inferences with negative conclusions. The suggestive evidence for affirmative premise bias in the literature was not supported: very little evidence was found for it in the current experiments. Robust findings of negative conclusion bias were, however, found across the three experiments, although the bias was mostly restricted to DA and MT inferences. This suggests that the bias is best regarded as a difficulty with double negation.

The results are discussed with respect to both the mental logic and mental model accounts of propositional reasoning. Neither theory as currently formulated can explain all of our findings, although a plausible revision of each is considered.     

Knowledge Structures and Linear Separability: Integrating Information in Object and Social Categorization

These experiments were designed to determine if the naturalness of abstract category structures varies with content domain. Specifically, the degree to which linear separability constrains categorization was investigated in object and social domains. Linearly separable (LS) categories are categories that can be perfectly partitioned on the basis of a weighted, additive combination of component information. Across a wide variety of stimulus materials and classification tasks LS structures were found to be more compatible with social than object materials. In sorting tasks, participants were more likely to sum characteristic features and form LS categories with social materials. In learning tasks, LS structures were easier to learn with social materials but nonlinearly separable structures were easier to learn with object materials. This interaction between category structure and content domain was attributed to differences in the types of knowledge and integration strategies that were activated. In object conditions, strategies that were inconsistent with adding independent features were observed (e.g., focusing on single dimensions, using configural properties, and relying on analogy). In social conditions, however, summing the evidence and learning LS structures appeared to be a natural strategy. It was concluded that the structure of knowledge varies with domain, and consequently it will be difficult to formulate domain general constraints in terms of abstract structural properties such as linear separability. Differences between object and social categorization systems are discussed.     

Interactions Between Tactile and Proprioceptive Representations in Haptics

ABSTRACT

Neuroprosthetic limbs, regardless of their sophisticated motor control, require sensory feedback to viably interact with the environment. Toward that aim, the authors examined interrelationships between tactile and proprioceptive sensations. Through human psychophysics experiments, they evaluated error patterns of subjects estimating hand location in a horizontal 2-dimensional workspace under 3 tactile conditions. While tactile cues did not significantly affect the structure of the pattern of errors, touching the workspace reduced estimation errors. During neurophysiological experiments, a macaque grasped textured objects using 2 hand postures. Sensory coding showed dependence on both roughness of the manipulandum and posture. In summary, the authors suggest that tactile sensations underlying haptics are processed in a stable spatial reference frame provided by a proprioceptive system, and that tactile and proprioceptive inputs can be encoded simultaneously by individual cells. Such insights will be useful for providing stable, adaptive sensory feedback for neuroprosthetics.     

心理模型及其探查技术的研究

自从1943年Craik首次提出心理模型概念以来,有关心理模型的研究已大量涌现,目前有两条心理模型的研究思路．文章分别沿着这两条思路介绍有关心理模型的研究,并以访谈法和观察法为线索梳理了心理模型的探查技术．最后指出心理模型及其探查技术的研究趋向：两条研究思路的整合和多种探查技术的整合。     

Dissociations Between Categorization and Recognition in Amnesic and Normal Individuals: An Exemplar-Based Interpretation

In recent work, the finding of dissociations between categorization and recognition in amnesic and normal individuals has been taken as evidence of multiple memory systems mediating these tasks. The present research provides support for the alternative idea that these dissociations can be interpreted in terms of a single-system exemplar-memory model that makes allowance for parameter differences across groups. In one experiment, a parameter change in memory sensitivity was induced by testing classification and recognition at varying delays; the results closely matched the ones observed by Knowlton and Squire (1993) for normal and amnesic participants. The exemplar model also yielded good quantitative predictions of the categorization-recognition dissociation. A second analysis demonstrated that dissociations between early versus late probabilistic classification learning and memory sensitivity were also well predicted by the single-system exemplar model. Limitations of the exemplar interpretation and future research directions are also discussed.     

Mutual Interactions Between Speech and Finger Movements

Speech output and finger movements were recorded as right-handed males repeated a syllable while making cyclical finger movements in three experimental conditions: (a) maintaining constant amplitude in both response systems; (b) alternating speech amplitude while attempting to maintain constant finger movement amplitude; and (c) alternating finger movement amplitude while attempting to maintain constant speech amplitude. Observations showed that output of the two response systems was coupled (one syllable was uttered with each finger movement) and entrained in amplitude (the amplitude pattern of the response that the subject attempted to keep constant followed that of the concurrently-active amplitude-modulated response).

These interactions were bidirectional and were present with both left-handed and right-handed finger movements. The interactions are more extensive and subtle than mere interference with one response system by the other, and apparently do not depend on anatomical overlap of the responding neural systems.     

The Specific Analysis of Structural Equation Models

Conventional structural equation modeling fits a covariance structure implied by the equations of the model. This treatment of the model often gives misleading results because overall goodness of fit tests do not focus on the specific constraints implied by the model. An alternative treatment arising from Pearl's directed acyclic graph theory checks identifiability and lists and tests the implied constraints. This approach is complete for Markov models, but has remained incomplete for models with correlated disturbances. Some new algebraic results overcome the limitations of DAG theory and give a specific form of structural equation analysis that checks identifiability, tests the implied constraints, equation by equation, and gives consistent estimators of the parameters in closed form from the equations. At present the method is limited to recursive models subject to exclusion conditions. With further work, specific structural equation modeling may yield a complete alternative to the present, rather unsatisfactory, global covariance structure analysis.