Choice probabilities and choice functions

Choice probabilities are basic to much of the theory of individual choice behavior in mathematical psychology. On the other hand, consumer economics has relied primarily on preference relations and choice functions for its theories of individual choice. Although there are sizable literatures on the connections between choice probabilities and preference relations, and between preference relations and choice functions, little has been done—apart from their common ties to preference relations—to connect choice probabilities and choice functions. The latter connection is studied in this paper. A family of choice functions that depends on a threshold parameter is defined from a choice probability function. It is then shown what must be true of the choice probability function so that the choice functions satisfy three traditional rationality conditions. Conversely, it is shown what must be true of the choice functions so that the choice probability function satisfies a version of Luce's axiom for individual choice probabilities.     

跨期选择中偏好反转的心理机制

通过直接测量近期和远期选择中备选项激活的情绪、间隔的时间知觉及对备选项金额差异和时间间隔的重视程度,以探究跨期选择中偏好反转产生的心理机制。结果表明：（1）近期选择中,备选项激活的情绪强度差异显著,而远期选择中两者的差异不显著;（2）近期和远期选择中,情绪强度差异和时间知觉差异能够预测偏好反转的发生。研究结果支持了偏好反转的情绪激活差异假说和时间知觉差异假说。     

Choice vs. Preference: The Effects of Choice and No Choice of Preferred and Non Preferred Spelling Tasks on the Academic Behavior of Students with Disabilities

The effects of choice and no choice of preferred and non preferred instructional activities on the academic behavior of 3 students with disabilities were investigated. Participant preferences for spelling tasks were assessed and an ABCDEF design was used to examine choice and preference within 6 experimental conditions: a) choice of preferred tasks, b) choice of non preferred tasks, c) no choice of preferred tasks, d) no choice of non preferred tasks, e) no choice of preferred tasks (yoked-control), and f) no choice of non preferred tasks (yoked-control). Results indicate that all 3 participants had higher levels of task engagement when working with preferred tasks, regardless of a choice or no choice format. The findings from this investigation contribute to the growing body of research that focuses on developing interventions that are responsive to individual student preferences.     

Goals or semantic constructs? Different choice setting and choice goal activation

The researcher of this paper contributes to the literature by identifying nuances among three types of choice settings that are likely to activate choice‐related goals and their implications for product evaluation. First, the research verifies that choice settings can activate choice‐related goals, for example, simplifying a choice. Second, it is proposed and shown that choice settings activate goals, not semantic constructs. Third, this research attempts to shed light on some nuances among different choice settings, which vary in the degree of cognitive effort used to compare alternatives. The results aid in understanding how three different choice settings can activate choice‐related goals. Fourth, the research proposes that goal activation has an implication for product evaluation, offering a new perspective to preference and choice reversal literature. Five experiments were conducted to test the hypotheses.     

THE PERILS OF PARTICIPATION: EFFECTS OF CHOICE OF TRAINING ON TRAINEE MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

This study presents an empirical test of the effects of trainee choice of training on subsequent motivation and learning. 207 trainees were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) no choice of training; (b) choice of training–but choice not received; (c) choice of training–with choice received. A pilot study was used to create a unique training context whereby trainees could be differentiated on the three conditions of choice, while all ultimately received the identical training module. Results indicated that, after controlling for cognitive ability, those trainees having a choice of training did have greater motivation to learn, provided they were ultimately given the training of their choice. On the other hand, trainees allowed to choose but whose choice was not the training module subsequently delivered were less motivated and learned less than those not asked to participate in the choice of training at all. These findings suggest that, in an organizational training context, there may be some "perils of participation." Implications for future research and practice are discussed.     

Maximizing,choice freedom,and duration judgments in choice making

This paper examines (a) whether people are less accurate in judging choice time as choice tasks involve more choice options, more choice information, or a combination of both and (b) whether people with a higher tendency to look for the best option in choice making (maximizers) have less accurate duration judgments of choice time as compared to people who are more easily settling for a choice outcome that is satisfactory (satisficers). A multilevel analysis is used to explore the relationships of interest using data collected through a series of choice tasks. In general, the results suggest that people seem to misjudge time durations when making choices. Moreover, empirical evidence demonstrates that people with an outspoken tendency to maximize in choice making do not differ significantly in estimating choice time accurately as compared to people who experience almost no need to maximize.     

Closing the gap between behavior and models in route choice: The role of spatiotemporal constraints and latent traits in choice set formation

A considerable gap exists between the behavioral paradigm of choice set formation in route choice and its representation in route choice modeling. While travelers form their viable choice set by retaining routes that satisfy spatiotemporal constraints, existing route generation techniques do not account for individual-related spatiotemporal constraints. This paper reduces the gap by proposing a route choice model incorporating spatiotemporal constraints and latent traits. The proposed approach combines stochastic route generation with a latent variable semi-compensatory model representing constraint-based choice set formation followed by compensatory choice. The model is applied to data focusing on habitual commuting route choice behavior in morning peak hours. Results show (i) the possibility of inferring spatiotemporal constraints from considered routes, (ii) the importance of incorporating spatiotemporal constraints and latent traits in route choice models, and (iii) the linkage between spatiotemporal constraints and time saving, spatial and mnemonic abilities.     

一拍即合：选择闭合影响最优化型决策风格者选择超载的中介机制

本研究通过3个研究探讨最优化型决策风格者更易选择超载的内在机制、以及如何缓解最优化型决策风格者选择超载。结果发现：(1)相较于满意型决策风格者,最优化型决策风格者更易选择超载;(2)选择闭合低是导致最优化型决策风格者选择超载的心理机制;(3)躯体闭合动作能够有效启动选择闭合感知,缓解最优化型决策风格者选择超载的负面作用。本研究对选择超载和最优化研究具有一定理论贡献,同时为消费者和商家提供实践启示。     

权力对延迟选择的影响

本研究旨在考察权力对延迟选择的影响, 并探讨决策难度在其中的调节作用以及决策过程的中介作用。两个实验均先操纵个体的权力状态, 然后再请被试完成随后的延迟选择任务。结果发现, 决策难度可调节权力对延迟选择的影响, 当决策困难时, 高权力者具有更低的延迟倾向, 当决策容易时, 权力的影响消失。决策过程的加工变异性可中介权力对延迟选择的影响。结果表明, 低权力者比高权力者具有更高的延迟倾向(尤其当决策困难时), 不同权力水平者在决策过程上的差异或可部分解释此种现象。     

Reciprocity: Choice shift in a social trap

In the present study it was investigated if choice behaviour in a social trap situation was affected by feedback about the choice of others. On top of the social trap reward structure investigated by Schroeder, Jensen, Reed, Sullivan and Schwab (1983) a bonus was added. In the individual bonus condition subjects were promised an unspecified bonus if they would obtain more points than any other group member of one's group. In the group bonus condition subjects would obtain a bonus if the own group acquired more points than the other group. As expected, in the group bonus condition one took fewer points than in the individual bonus condition. As suggested by the reciprocity explanation of choice behaviour (Liebrand, Wilke, Vogel and Wolters 1986; Liebrand, Jansen and Rijken 1986) it appeared that first choice corresponded strongly with one's expectations about the choices of others. Before the second choice and also before the third choice one received purported feedback about the choices of other members of one's group. In the conserving condition one learned that all others made a conserving choice, whereas in the consuming condition one learned that all others made a consuming choice. According to the reciprocity explanation it was found that when choice behaviour was in agreement with own previous expectations and previous choice, no choice change did occur. Shifts took place in conditions in which own previous expectations about the choices of others and own choice were disconfirmed by information about choices of others.     

Asymmetric option effects on ease of choice criticism and defense

Individuals often criticize others’ choices and seek to defend their own. In theory, the ease of criticizing a particular choice should correspond to the ease of defending it. However, we demonstrate that differences in the types of arguments put forth in choice criticism and defense result in a systematic discrepancy in the ease with which these tasks are performed. Specifically, criticism arguments tend to be based on norms or conventions, and defense arguments on idiosyncratic tastes or circumstances; accordingly, whether the chosen option is perceived as un/conventional has a significantly greater effect on the ease of choice criticism than on the ease of choice defense. Furthermore, assessing the ease of choice defense increases the choice share of unconventional options, whereas judging the ease of choice criticism has only a small impact on choice. We discuss the implications of our findings with respect to research on reason-based choice in socially-intensive environments.     

An evaluation of the value of choice with preschool children

The current study examined the reinforcing effects of choosing among alternatives in a four-part evaluation. In the first study, initial-link responses in a concurrent-chains arrangement resulted in access to terminal links in which the completion of an academic task resulted in (a) the choice of a reinforcer (choice), (b) the delivery of an identical reinforcer (no choice), or (c) no material reinforcer (control). Three patterns of responding emerged: persistent preference for choice (3 participants); initial preference for choice, which did not persist (2 participants); and preference for no choice (1 participant). Additional evaluations determined if preference for choice could be enhanced (Study 2) or established (Study 3) by including more stimuli from which to choose. Choice-link selections systematically increased for all participants when more items were available from which to choose. Study 4 identified the precise value of the opportunity to choose by progressively increasing the response requirement during the choice terminal links for 3 children and determining the point at which these children stopped selecting the choice link. All children continued to select the choice link even when the work required in the choice link was much greater than that arranged in the no-choice link.     

The effects of spatial stimulus-response compatibility on choice time production accuracy and variability

Five experiments examined the relations between timing and attention using a choice time production task in which the latency of a spatial choice response is matched to a target interval (3 or 5 s). Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that spatial stimulus-response incompatibility increased nonscalar timing variability without affecting timing accuracy and that choice reaction time practice reduced choice time production variability. These data support a "temporal discounting" model in which response choice and timing occur in series, but the interval timed is shortened to account for nontemporal processing. In Experiment 3, feedback and anticipation task demands improved choice time production accuracy. In Experiments 4 and 5, the delay between the start-timing and choice-decision signals interacted with choice difficulty to affect choice time production accuracy and variability when timing a 3- but not a 5-s interval, suggesting that attention mediates timing before and after an interruption in timing.     

Explaining Façades of Choice: Timing, Justice Effects, and Behavioral Outcomes

Organizations sometimes present their members with facades of choice: situations that appear to promise a choice but that, in fact, do not do so. Our study examines how facades of choice, relative to genuine choice, influence justice perceptions and negative and compensatory behavioral reactions. We then consider how the adequacy and timing of explanations for façades of choice affect justice perceptions and negative and compensatory reactions following façades of choice. Results indicate that the impact of explanations is influenced by their adequacy and timing (before or after one actually suffers the broken promise inherent in a façade of choice), suggesting that the experience of an injustice may frame a person's understanding of the explanation given for that injustice.     

On the aggregation across subjects in analyzing individual choice behavior

Authors dealing with models of individual choice behavior often point out the pitfalls of using group data to test such models. However, it is possible to derive properties of the choice behavior of the population based on these models of individual choice behavior. The present paper develops a procedure for the aggregation of choice data which takes into account individual differences. The utility of using aggregated choice data and the properties of the present procedure in comparison to other methods which utilized group data in analyzing choice behavior are discussed.     

Choice and ego-depletion: the moderating role of autonomy

The self-regulatory strength model maintains that all acts of self-regulation, self-control, and choice result in a state of fatigue called ego-depletion. Self-determination theory differentiates between autonomous regulation and controlled regulation. Because making decisions represents one instance of self-regulation, the authors also differentiate between autonomous choice and controlled choice. Three experiments support the hypothesis that whereas conditions representing controlled choice would be egodepleting, conditions that represented autonomous choice would not. In Experiment 3, the authors found significant mediation by perceived self-determination of the relation between the choice condition (autonomous vs. controlled) and ego-depletion as measured by performance.     

When gift-giving produces dissonance: Effects of subliminal affiliation priming on choices for one's self versus close others

Past research on cognitive dissonance indicated that people from independent (e.g. European-American) and interdependent (e.g. East-Asian) cultural backgrounds show different patterns of choice justification: whereas choice made for oneself affirms the independent view of the self, choice made for close others affirms the interdependent view of the self. We hypothesized that interpersonal choice considerations may be temporally accessible even among habitually independent European-Americans. The present research provides the first experimental evidence that choice justification varies as a function of both subliminal affiliation priming and the target of choice (self vs. close others). Results from three studies indicate that subliminal priming of affiliation increases justification of a choice European-Americans made for a close other, while decreasing justification of a choice made for the self. Implications for theories related to cognitive dissonance, subliminal processing and cultural meaning systems are discussed.     

The optimal number of alternatives at a choice point with travel time considered

The problem of optimal design is considered for tasks that can be represented as n choice points with a_i alternatives per choice point. Examples are mazes or multiple choice tests. Some fixed time t′ elapses between choice points, say traveling from one to the other or reading a question, and additional time t is spent considering each alternative at the choice point. For fixed total time, the goal is to find the optimum number of choice points and the optimum number of alternatives at each choice point. In general, the longer the time spent between choice points, the greater the optimum number of alternatives at each point.     

Effects of reinforcer choice measured in single-operant and concurrent-schedule procedures

The effects of choice and no choice of reinforcer on the response rates of 3 children with autism were compared across single-operant and concurrent-schedule procedures. No consistent differences in responding between choice and no-choice components emerged during single-operant phases. During the concurrent-schedule phases, however, all participants had substantially higher rates of responding to the button that led to a choice among reinforcers than to the button that did not lead to choice.     

Estimating latent distributions in recurrent choice data

This paper introduces a flexible class of stochastic mixture models for the analysis and interpretation of individual differences in recurrent choice and other types of count data. These choice models are derived by specifying elements of the choice process at the individual level. Probability distributions are introduced to describe variations in the choice process among individuals and to obtain a representation of the aggregate choice behavior. Due to the explicit consideration of random effect sources, the choice models are parsimonious and readily interpretable. An easy to implement EM algorithm is presented for parameter estimation. Two applications illustrate the proposed approach.