同胞共情：特点、影响因素及理论机制

同胞之间的交流和互动更能促进彼此共情的发展。随着“全面二孩”政策的实行,同胞共情成为国内外研究者共同关注的焦点。本文在同胞的视角下总结了同胞共情的共性特点和特异性特点,从个体、同胞、家庭三个维度阐述了同胞共情的影响因素。未来研究需要进一步注重文化,回归本土研究;加强双向机制研究,夯实理论框架;重视干预性研究,探索提升同胞共情的方法。     

Three-year follow-up of same-sex couples who had civil unions in Vermont, same-sex couples not in civil unions, and heterosexual married couples

This study was a 3-year follow-up of 65 male and 138 female same-sex couples who had civil unions in Vermont during the 1st year of that legislation. These couples were compared with 23 male and 61 female same-sex couples in their friendship circles who did not have civil unions and with 55 heterosexual married couples (1 member of each was a sibling to a member of a civil union couple). Despite the legalized nature of their relationships, civil union couples did not differ on any measure from same-sex couples who were not in civil unions. However, same-sex couples not in civil unions were more likely to have ended their relationships than same-sex civil union or heterosexual married couples. Compared with heterosexual married participants, both types of same-sex couples reported greater relationship quality, compatibility, and intimacy and lower levels of conflict. Longitudinal predictors of relationship quality at Time 2 included less conflict, greater level of outness, and a shorter relationship length for men in same-sex relationships and included less conflict and more frequent sex for women in same-sex relationships at Time 1.     

Parental perception of learning-disabled children's adjustment problems and related stress

Mothers and fathers of learning-disabled (LD) children rated their children's problems on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the stress they experienced as a result of each problem. Data were examined as a function of (a) the child's sex, age, birth order, IQ, discrepancy IQ, and degree of LD, (b) the parents' age, locus of control, and self-concept, and (c) family SES, family size, and mother's working status. Both parents rated externalizing behaviors higher than internalizing. Boys were rated as significantly more problematic and stressful than girls. Greater child adjustment problems and concomitant parental stress were reported by the younger half of the maternal sample and their spouses, and by fathers with a lower self-concept and their wives. Although mothers did not differ from fathers in behavior ratings, they reported greater stress in response to them. This was particularly true of mothers of middle or upper SES with an external locus of control.This research was funded in part by the Ontario Mental Health Foundation Grant number 822–900. The authors are indebted to Leo Lazar, director of the Learning Disabilities Clinic of the Child and Family Studies Centre, and to Cirell Broudy, for their contribution to various aspects of this research.     

An investigation of verbal interaction, knowledge of sexual behavior and self-concept in adolescent mothers

Variables commonly considered to be major factors in contributing to the incidence of adolescent pregnancy may be only part of the total pattern. This study sought to examine the adolescent mothers' communication with significant others and their knowledge about sex, pregnancy, and birth control methods. Self-concepts of the adolescent mothers were compared with those of the published norms of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. The study included 23 adolescent mothers between the ages of 13 and 19 who were gravida 1 as indicated by their medical records. They were given a questionnaire constructed from previous research. They also completed a communication scale and the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. The findings of the present study indicated that most adolescent mothers considered their communication with their parent mothers to be one of mutual understanding. However, it appears that most adolescent mothers obtain much of their information about sex, pregnancy, and birth control methods from significant others. The self-concepts of these adolescent mothers were lower in comparison to the norm. The results indicate a need for further research in the area of adolescent sexual development, sex education in the school, and increased involvement of parents in the communication of sexual mores.     

Sex-linked patterns of socialization

The focus of the present study was on ways in which parents differentially socialize their sons and daughters. Measures of socialization were based on the proportion of person- and position-oriented appeals parents reported using in attempts to regulate their children's behavior. Mothers and fathers of first, third, and fifth graders were asked what they would say to their son or daughter in a series of common parent—child situations in which there was an obvious need for a parent to regulate the child's behavior. The major finding was a sex of parent by sex of child interaction in the use of parental appeal strategies. Across ages of children, parents were more person oriented in regulating their same-sex child than their opposite-sex child.This research was supported by Grant MH28543-01 from the National Institute of Mental Health. Copies of the Manual for Coding Regulatory Appeals can be obtained by writing to the author at the Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York, 33 West 42nd Street, New York, New York 10036.     

Birth order and personality: Some empirical findings and a biobehavioral theory

The birth-order variables assessed included sex and number of siblings, assignment to 2- or 3-child family for separate sample analysis, family position as appropriate to given sample, spacing effect—was the birth of the second child spaced 4 years or more after the first child—dominance relationships in the family, sex of nearest siblings, sex of other siblings as appropriate, whether raised by both original parents, whether raised by foster parent(s). The personality variables assessed included sociability, anxiety, dominance, superego, phlegmatic temperament, involvement, self-regard and other scales measured by the new Howarth Personality Questionnaire. Samples of 50 for the 2-child families and 58 for the 3-child families were analyzed and it was found that: (a) in the 2-child families eldest children were less cooperative than younger, that those reporting dominance by another sibling were higher in state anxiety and this also applied to the younger of the pair, that those spaced in birth order were less afraid of being socially unacceptable, that those raised by both parents were higher in involvement; (b) in the 3-child families those dominated by a sibling, regardless of position, had more hypochondriac symptoms (a sign of anxiety), and that those spaced in birth order showed less cooperativeness. A biobehavioral theory to encompass biological-hormonal spacing effects and dominance as well as other intrafamilial behaviors was proposed.     

Family Emotional Climate and Sibling Relationship Quality: Influences on Behavioral Problems and Adaptation in Preschool-Aged Children

We examined the impact of family emotional climate and sibling relationship quality on behavioral problems and adaptation in preschool-aged children. Participants were 63 mothers with a preschool-aged child enrolled in a Southern Arizona Head Start Program. Siblings were identified as children closest in age to target child. Mothers of predominantly Mexican descent (95%) participated in home interviews during the Fall and Spring of the year children entered center-based programs. Sibling relationship quality (warmth, agonism/competition) was proposed to predict children’s adjustment (behavioral problems and adaptation) longitudinally. Results indicate that after controlling for child characteristics (temperament, child gender, birth order) and after accounting for family characteristics (family emotional expressiveness, child exposure to interparental conflict, and parental agreement on childrearing), sibling warmth made a significant and unique contribution to child adjustment as reported by mothers and teachers six months later. Findings are consistent with existing research indicating that sibling relationships impact children’s adjustment and shape young children’s lives in meaningful and marked ways. Moreover, these associations were found with an understudied sample of young children of predominantly Mexican descent in low-income families, and thus make an important contribution to knowledge in the field.     

Israeli kindergarten children's gender constancy for others' counter‐stereotypic toy play and appearance: the role of sibling gender and relative age

To test divergent theoretical predictions as to the impact of having a younger or older, same‐sex sibling or opposite‐sex sibling on other gender constancy, Israeli kindergarten children in two‐child families responded to a gender constancy task in which a male and female picture target engaged in counter‐stereotypic toy play and adopted counter‐stereotypic appearance. Children were also asked whether the target child could change sex at will and to explain the difference between boys and girls. Relative age of sibling, both independently and in interaction with participant sex, was associated with greater gender constancy in the face of counter‐stereotypic toy play. Relative age of sibling and sibling sex was independently associated with greater gender constancy in the face of counter‐stereotypic appearance. In both cases, children with a younger sibling evidenced greater gender constancy. Boys, especially ones with a male sibling, referred most explicitly to target's birth sex in accounting for his or her being unable to change sex at will. Genital and anatomical differences between boys and girls were cited more often by children who referred explicitly to target's birth sex and had a younger sibling. The results were discussed in the context of theories of gender development and the socialization of gender within the family. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Theory‐of‐Mind development and early sibling relationships after the birth of a sibling: Parental discipline matters

This study investigated relations among children's Theory‐of‐Mind (ToM) development, early sibling interactions, and parental discipline strategies during the transition to siblinghood. Using a sample of firstborn children and their parents (N = 208), we assessed children's ToM before the birth of a sibling and 12 months after the birth, and sibling interactions (i.e., positive engagement and antagonism) and parental discipline strategies (i.e., child‐centred and parent‐centred discipline) at 4 and 8 months in the first year of siblinghood. Structural equation modelling analyses revealed that children's ToM before the birth of the sibling predicted children's positive engagement with the infant sibling, whereas children's antagonistic behaviours towards the infant sibling negatively predicted children's ToM at 12 months, but only when mothers used low levels of child‐centred discipline. These findings emphasize the role of parents in the development of young children's social‐cognitive understanding in the context of early sibling interactions.

Highlights

• This study investigated relations among firstborns' Theory‐of‐Mind (ToM), early sibling relationships, and parental discipline during the first year of siblinghood.
• Multigroup analyses showed that ToM predicted higher sibling positive engagement, and early sibling antagonism predicted poorer ToM when mothers used low child‐centred discipline.
• Parental discipline plays an important role in the development of young children's social understanding and sibling relationships as early as the first year of siblinghood.

     

Number of older brothers and sexual orientation: new tests and the attraction/behavior distinction in two national probability samples

The extent to which number of older brothers or "fraternal birth order" predicted the 2 main components that researchers have traditionally used to conceptualize sexual orientation-that is, psychological attraction and sexual behavior-was examined in 2 recent national probability samples. In both studies, fraternal birth order predicted same-sex attraction in men, with each additional older brother increasing the odds of homosexual attraction by an average of 38%. Results also indicated that the fraternal birth order/same-sex attraction relationship in men was independent of sexual behavior, including early same-sex behavior. No sibling characteristics predicted sexual orientation in women. Results suggest experience-based theories (e.g., early same-sex play) of the fraternal birth order effect in men are unlikely to be correct.     

Birth order, sex of child, and perceptions of parental favoritism

Many studies have examined factors that influence discriminative parental solicitude. Sex, birth order, and age of the mother are a few factors demonstrated to influence levels of parental investment (especially as measured by offspring self-report). One indicator of a high level of parental investment is being a parental favorite. Using self-reports from a sample of several hundred young adults, we secured support for two hypotheses related to the influence of birth order and sex on parental favoritism. Fathers are not perceived as having a favorite child more often than are mothers, but are more likely to favor female children than are mothers. Mothers are perceived to be more likely to favor female children in blended sibships. Both mothers and fathers are perceived as favoring genetically-related children. The results also suggest that the birth order of the parental favorite varies with the birth order of the participant. Firstborns and lastborns report a pattern of favoritism that suggests parents favor firstborn and lastborn children. The discussion addresses limitations of the methodology and presents directions for future research.     

Relationship with the mother modulates the response of yearling Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) to the birth of a sibling

The authors investigated the changes induced by the birth of a sibling in the relationship of 1-year-old Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) with their mothers and group companions. After the birth of a sibling, mother-yearling contact, proximity, and grooming decreased dramatically. Yearlings responded to such a reduction in maternal care in either of 2 radically different ways. Yearlings either sought attention from group companions and showed no sign of depression or did not compensate for the mother's reduced availability and became depressed. The modality of response was predicted by the quality of the relationship with the mother before the sibling birth. Yearlings that had spent a larger amount of time in contact with their mothers were less likely to become depressed. Security of the attachment relationship with the mother may be the factor mediating the link between the time in contact and the yearling's response to the birth of a sibling.     

Antecedents of mirror self‐recognition of toddlers: Emotional availability,birth order,and gender

The present study employed a longitudinal design for examining the role of emotional availability of child–mother dyads, birth order of children, and their gender as determinants of mirror self‐recognition of toddlers. It was hypothesized that toddlers who maintained more optimal emotional availability with mother at the age of 12 months would tend to identify themselves more readily at the age of 20 months. We assumed further that first‐born children and females would identify themselves more readily than males and younger siblings. A sample of 54 nonrisk children and their mothers was investigated. Path analysis model showed that emotional availability partly predicted self‐recognition: responsive toddlers identified themselves more often than less responsive peers. No significant effects were found for the other scales of emotional availability. A nonlinear birth order effect was observed, with second‐born children being less likely to show mirror self‐recognition than first‐borns or third‐borns. Child gender was not significantly associated with self‐recognition at the age of 20 months. The data showed further that birth order was significantly linked with components of emotional availability. No significant correlations were found between emotional availability scores and child gender. Results were discussed in light of the different components of emotional availability, and the psychological correlates of ordinal position in the family. ©2002 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Psychosocial characteristics of preschool siblings of handicapped and nonhandicapped children

This project examined psychosocial characteristics of 24 preschool-aged siblings of handicapped children in relation to a control group of 22 siblings of nonhandicapped children. Subjects were matched on family size and income, sibling age, birth order, sex, age spacing, and marital status of their parents. Results indicated no statistically significant differences between groups of children on measures of perceived self-competence and acceptance, understanding of developmental disabilities, empathy, and child care responsibility. Significant group differences were found where brothers of handicapped children were rated by their mothers as being more depressed and aggressive than brothers of nonhandicapped control children. Sisters of handicapped children were rated by mothers as being more aggressive than sisters of nonhandicapped children. Sisters of handicapped children and brothers of nonhandicapped children had significantly fewer privileges and more restrictions on their home activities than other groups. Results are discussed in relation to previous research on older silbings of handicapped children and the general literature on family stress and childhood disability and disease. The importance of examining sibling functioning via multiple measures of child behavior is stressed.The authors are grateful to the children and families who participated in the project. The assistance of Dr. Ricardo Barrera, Christine DiBlasio, Lisa Kaye, Paola Bellabarba, Jeanne Logozzo, Donna Motley, Jennifer Harter, and Tina Meisell is also gratefully acknowleged. This project was funded by Grant Number G008300345 from the U.S. Department of Education.     

The Roles of Fathers’ Involvement and Coparenting in Relationship Quality among Cohabiting and Married Parents

Relationship quality often declines following the birth of child, likely reflecting in part the shift towards role traditionalization that occurs through gender specialization. The current study used longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study, an urban birth cohort in 2000 consisting of structured interviews of mothers and fathers who were followed over 5 years (n?=?1275), to examine whether low levels of fathers’ involvement and coparenting, two indicators of role traditionalization, were linked to negative trajectories of mothers’ and fathers’ relationship quality for couples whose first child was born in marriage or cohabitation. We carefully consider union transitions in the 5 years postpartum by including between-subjects variables indicating that the parents were continually married, continually cohabiting, were cohabiting at the child’s birth and got married after, or were cohabiting or married at the child’s birth but subsequently separated. As anticipated, both fathers’ involvement and coparenting were positively associated with parents’ reports of relationship quality, more so for mothers than for fathers and especially for cohabiting mothers, buffering the decline in mothers’ and fathers’ relationship quality that typically accompanies the birth of a child. These findings underscore the importance of the father role, not only for the well-being of the child (as we know from other research) but also for the relationship of the parents. Fathers should be encouraged and supported to take an active role in parenting through educational programs and public policy (e.g., paid paternity leave).     

Étude des préférences affectives dans la relation fraternelle au travers du dessin de famille imaginaire

This article reveals the role of older (real or imaginary) brothers and sisters, and more broadly the part of affective process in socialization of 4-5 years old girls born of mixed sibling, single-sex sibling or single girl. We used the imaginary family drawing followed by an interview on the sibling relationship. The qualitative and quantitative analysis' results reveal that identifications are always overloaded to the affects but are directed according to the sex of the chosen model. Moreover, most of the girls increase their own sex-group and assert in this manner their sexual identity. The brother's experiment depends on the populations and allows the child in a mix-sibling configuration to be more flexible according to sexual stereotypes.     

Same-sex and cross-sex siblings: Activity choices,roles, behavior,and gender stereotypes

Forty same-sex and cross-sex school-aged sibling pairs were observed in their homes during self-selected activities. The sex role learning index (SERLI) and a sex-typing room analysis were administered for the younger siblings, and maternal questionnaire information was obtained. Sibling gender constellation was associated with reliable differences in activity choices during the unstructured observations. Male dyads interacted less than other sibling groups, while older sisters in female dyads engaged in the most teaching. Older female siblings, regardless of the gender of the younger sibling, assumed the manager role frequently. Dyads containing an older girl also exhibited the greatest role asymmetrics. Affective differences related to gender constellation were also noted. Younger girls with older brothers and younger boys with older sisters evidenced the least gender stereotyping.     

Child,mother, and father evaluations of depression in psychiatric inpatient children

The agreement among children and their parents in evaluating the children's depression was examined in 48 families. Newly admitted inpatient children (ages 6–13) and their mothers and fathers independently completed selfreport and interview measures to assess severity and duration of the children's depression. The results indicated that different measures of depression completed by the same rater (child, mother, or father) were highly intercorrelated. Yet there was little or no relationship between childmother and child-father ratings of the children's depression for the same or related measures of depression. Children independently diagnosed (DSM III) as depressed rated themselves and were rated by their parents as more depressed than nondepressed children. Even so, children consistently rated themselves as less depressed across the measures than did their parents. Parent ratings of the children's depression and the correspondence of child-parent ratings varied as a function of several child and family variables, including child IQ, gender, race, and family welfare status.This investigation was supported in part by a Research Scientist Development Award (1 K02 MH00353) to the first author from the National Institute of Mental Health and by a Clinical Research Center Grant for the Study of Affective Disorders (5 P50 MH30915-05) from the National Institute of Mental Health. The authors are grateful to the clinical research team of the Child Psychiatric Treatment Service.     

The Role of Contextual Threat in Predicting Self-Reported Distress among Siblings of Children with Cancer

Each year, 14,000 children are diagnosed with cancer in the United States. Prolonged, intensive treatment regimens disrupt the entire family system, but effects on siblings are poorly understood. In this preliminary investigation, we employed a risk and resistance framework to study adjustment among 30 siblings (aged 10–17) of children undergoing cancer treatment. We examined whether or not objective stress associated with the cancer experience (contextual threat) predicted sibling distress and explored demographic and disease-related predictors of sibling adjustment. Contextual threat was positively associated with sibling-reported distress, independent of sibling age, gender, birth order relative to the child with cancer, and cancer treatment intensity. From among the demographic and disease-related factors, only younger birth order relative to the child with cancer was independently associated with sibling distress. These results suggest that a subset of siblings may be at increased risk for elevated distress in the face of their brother’s or sister’s illness.     

Social comparisons with siblings made by adolescents with a learning difficulty

Social comparisons and the family environment are important antecedents of self-esteem. In this study the self-esteem and perceptions of stigma of 50 adolescents with a mild-moderate learning difficulty were measured. The self-esteem and stigma scores were factor-analysed to produce five factors: Positive self; Social competence; Being different; Anxiety; and Work competence. Social comparisons made by the adolescents between themselves and their siblings were also measured. Most adolescents 'preferred' (chose more often and gave high scores to) older same-sex siblings while younger opposite-sex siblings were the least preferred (were chosen less often and derogated). An explanation for these findings is suggested in terms of defensive social comparisons due to the loss of self-esteem in having a younger sibling ‘overtake’ the adolescent on developmental milestones, and in the tendency for non-handicapped pre-pubescent children to derogate the opposite sex during gender identity formation. This explanation is supported by the finding that the adolescents with younger siblings scored higher on the Anxiety factor than those who compared themselves with older siblings. Those with younger same-sex siblings were the most anxious. There was also a tendency for adolescents with siblings to score lower on one of the factors than adolescents with no sibling. The discussion raises the questions of how to deal with social comparisons within the family and how to talk to the child with mild learning difficulties about his or her handicap.