消费者基于选择集的情境效应

消费者基于选择集的情境效应颠覆了传统的理性选择理论,表明了情境对消费者偏好和选择的系统性影响。情境效应主要的类型有吸引效应和折衷效应。情境效应具有感知偏差、风险和负面情绪规避以及信息推理等方面的内在机理。选择集结构和特征及消费者等因素都对情境效应产生影响,而情境效应会影响消费者偏好的构建。未来情境效应研究将会向复杂属性组合、复杂购买情境和新情境效应的发现等方面拓展。     

Social Context and the Dynamics of Cooperative Choice

Recent work using decontextualized economic games suggests that cooperation is a dynamic decision‐making process: Automatic responses typically support cooperation on average, while deliberation leads to increased selfishness. Here, we performed two studies examining how these temporal effects generalize to games with richer social context cues. Study 1 found that time pressure increased cooperation to a similar extent in games played with in‐group members and out‐group members. Study 2 found that time pressure increased cooperation to a similar extent in games described as competitions and games described as collaborations. These results show that previous positive effects of time pressure on cooperation are not unique to neutrally framed games devoid of social context and are not driven by implicit assumptions of shared group membership or cooperative norms. In doing so, our findings provide further insight into the cognitive underpinnings of cooperative decision making. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

词汇选择中句子语境效应的研究

通过两个词汇选择实验,采用快速选择法对汉语句子语境作用作了考察.结果发现句子语境位置及语境与目标词之间的语法关系对于词汇选择起着重要的作用.这些结果表明(1)前语境为被试对随后出现的目标词有一种预期效应,它对词汇选择的促进作用大于延迟语境;(2)当句子或短语不符合句法时,语境的效应很弱,语境效应的产生依赖于句法、语义等高层次的表征.     

Goal Systemic Effects in the Context of Choice and Social Judgment

The present paper features a novel approach to motivation and self‐regulation couched in conceptual terms of goal systems theory ( Kruglanski et al., 2002 ). Goal systems theory adopts a cognitive view of motivation and highlights the interrelations of goals and means. The cognitive aspects of the theory have to do with the architecture of cognitions, and the finality of cognitive resources. The motivational aspects of the theory relate to the relation of the goal/means constructs to the dynamics of action and the affective phenomena that accompany goal pursuit. A goal systemic analysis not only affords a better understanding of classic self‐regulatory phenomena, but also offers new insights into various psychological problems such as choice and judgment.     

Trying Hard or Hardly Trying: An Analysis of Context Effects in Choice

Several studies have shown that consumer choice is often influenced by the context or the set of alternatives under consideration. Context effects have largely been explained in terms of constructive preferences that are consistent with 2 theoretical accounts—effort minimization and perceptual contrast—that emphasize different underlying motivations. We propose that the effect of time pressure on context effects can be used as a moderating variable to determine which of the 2 motives is supported. Specifically, if context effects bias preferences due to effort minimization, time pressure should increase the magnitude of such effects. In contrast, if context effects arise due to an excessive focus on the relational characteristics of the alternatives provided, time pressure should reduce the magnitude of such effects. We examine this proposition in relation to the compromise effect and a choice between an extreme and an all‐average option. We find that the compromise effect and the preference for an all‐average alternative are both reduced under time pressure. A study using Mouselab provides additional support for the underlying decision mechanisms. We discuss the theoretical implications of this research and explore its consequences for marketers.     

Explaining Context Effects on Choice Using a Model of Comparative Judgment

Context effects refer to the shifts in shares when another alternative is introduced in the choice set. The alternative can be asymmetrically dominated, asymmetrically dominating, totally dominated, or totally dominating. We developed a theoretically derived model based on the shifts in attribute valuation as a potential explanation for all context effects. First, the model is tested using data from previously published studies. As predicted, the results showed a high correlation between shifts in valuation and changes in the choice shares. The model is also tested using 2 studies that extend the design of the choice sets to include better alternatives in a search context and the removal of an alternative. The strong relation justifies the case for comparative valuation as an underlying mechanism for context effects. Assuming this valuation, the article illustrates how the framework can be used to develop new product strategies taking into account the values of the unchosen alternatives.     

Unattainable Goal Choice as a Self-Handicapping Strategy1

Selection of an extremely difficult performance goal is conceptualized as a self-handicapping strategy–an attempt to externalize outcomes threatening one's self-image. In a laboratory study, male college students were led to believe they had succeeded at a task that was either relevant or irrelevant to their self-images. In conjunction with this, subjects were led to believe that the success they had experienced was either contingent upon or not contingent upon their effort. Consistent with a self-handicapping strategy, extremely difficult performance goals were selected on a subsequent task when success at a previous task was not contingent upon workers' e]ffort, but only in the personally relevant condition-i.e., when task performance had attributional implications for workers' s]elf-images. Personally irrelevant tasks led to a realistic downward revision of performance aspirations in response to noncontingent success.     

Resurgence as Choice in Context: Treatment duration and on/off alternative reinforcement

Resurgence as Choice (RaC) is a quantitative theory suggesting that an increase in an extinguished target behavior with subsequent extinction of an alternative behavior (i.e., resurgence) is governed by the same processes as choice more generally. We present data from an experiment with rats examining a range of treatment durations with alternative reinforcement plus extinction and demonstrate that increases in treatment duration produce small but reliable decreases in resurgence. Although RaC predicted the relation between target responding and treatment duration, the model failed in other respects. First, contrary to predictions, the present experiment also replicated previous findings that exposure to cycling on/off alternative reinforcement reduces resurgence. Second, RaC did a poor job simultaneously accounting for target and alternative behaviors across conditions. We present a revised model incorporating a role for more local signaling effects of reinforcer deliveries or their absence on response allocation. Such signaling effects are suggested to impact response allocation above and beyond the values of the target and alternative behaviors as longer-term repositories of experience. The new model provides an excellent account of the data and can be viewed as an integration of RaC and a quantitative approximation of some aspects of Context Theory.     

Consultation and Participation with Children in Healthy Schools: Choice, Conflict and Context

In this paper we report on our use of a participatory research methodology to consult with children in the UK on how to improve pupil well-being in secondary schools, framed within the wider social policy context of healthy schools. We worked with children on the selection of our research methods and sought to voice the views of children to a local education authority to improve the design of school environments. The consultation process ultimately failed not because the children were unforthcoming with their views on either methods or on well-being in schools, but because of difficulties in how their views were received by adults. We show how the socio-economic, cultural and political context in which those difficulties were set might have led to the eventual break down of the consultation process, and we draw out a number of possible implications for consultative and participatory work with children in school settings.     

A Strategy for Reducing and Analyzing Ordered Choice Data

A major barrier to use of new measurement methodologies in behavioral research has been the difficulties encountered in collecting individual judgements. Balanced incomplete block design (BIBD) procedures offer enormous flexibility in the way judgmental data may be collected. The advantages and disadvantages of BIBDs are clarified and their use is demonstrated with an empirical example. A procedure for reducing data of this type to analyzable form is proposed and an analytical approach that is appropriate for the resulting data is illustrated.     

Strategy and Misdirection in Forced Choice Memory Performance Testing in Deception Detection

We examined forced choice memory performance testing in deception detection from a theoretical perspective. Evidence suggests that participants form different strategies to defeat this test. We attempted to describe these strategies within the framework of Cognitive Hierarchy Theory, a theory that distinguishes strategies based on their degree of anticipation of opponents' strategies. Additionally, we explored whether the strategy selection process is malleable. Truth tellers and liars were subjected to a forced choice memory test about a mock crime. Additionally, half of the sample was subjected to a misdirection changing the appearance of the test to that of a polygraph examination. We found detection accuracies and strategies similar to previous experiments and our misdirection manipulation elicited new strategies and behaviour. Theoretical and practical applications are discussed.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influence of Sociocultural Paradigms

This research examined the influence of sociocultural paradigms of menopause on attitudes toward menopause. Five hundred eighty-one women and men, between the ages of 18 and 85, were assigned to one of three groups distinguished by the context within which they expressed their attitudes toward menopause. The contexts were designed to reflect particular paradigms: one group described their attitudes toward three medical problems, including menopause; a second group described their attitudes toward three life transitions, including menopause; and a third group described their attitudes toward three symbols of aging, including menopause. Positive and negative subscales of the attitude questionnaires for menopause were analyzed for context and age/experience. Results indicated that the medical context elicited significantly more negative and fewer positive attitudes than did the other two contexts, particularly among older participants. In general, women's attitudes were more positive than were men's, and attitudes became increasingly positive with age and/or experience. The discussion includes the potential role of attitudes as mediating the impact of sociocultural paradigms on experience and behavior.     

创造性思维的社会文化基础

创造性思维作为创造性的内核, 是个体在一定社会文化背景上产生新颖独特且实用观点或产品的思维形式。文章基于社会文化的三层次模型, 分别从文化观念、文化活动或经历以及文化工具三个层面, 围绕人性价值观、中庸取向、非价值性文化传统、海外旅居、多语种学习、以及文化工具所涵盖的文化规则、符号和实物七个方面阐述了社会文化对创造性思维的影响。未来研究有必要在此基础上继续从文化与社会因素的依存性、个体差异控制、文化和创造性思维的类型差异以及多重研究取向协作四方面深入。     

Sales Promotions and the Choice Context as Competing Influences on Consumer Decision Making

Although brand switching is one of the most researched topics in marketing, we still know very little about the moderators of switching between brands in different price‐quality tiers (e.g., from Häagen–Dazs ice cream to Breyers or to a store brand). Building on the notion that buyers have a (category‐specific) consideration set of price–quality tiers, we propose that sales promotions and the choice set composition (or the choice context) have compensatory effects on brand switching between price–quality tiers. Specifically, if one of these factors causes buyers to switch to a higher price–quality tier within their brand‐tier consideration set, then the other factor is less likely to induce switching in the same direction (to an even higher tier) and more likely to induce switching in the opposite direction. This general proposition leads to several specific hypotheses, including (a) the likelihood of switching between particular brand tiers due to price promotions can be predicted based on the choice set composition; (b) asymmetric switching, whereby consumers are more likely to switch up from a low‐tier to a promoted high‐tier brand than from a high‐tier to a promoted low‐tier brand, is reduced or eliminated if consumers consider three price–quality tiers; and (c) the compromise effect is reduced when the lowest tier brand offers a price promotion. These hypotheses were supported in a series of studies, which also examined rival explanations. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Similarity in Context: Cognitive Representation and Violation of Preference and Perceptual Invariance in Consumer Choice

A recent stream of research has demonstrated that the relative preference ordering among any two alternatives is influenced by the context or the set of alternatives under consideration. A parallel stream of research has suggested that judgments of similarity or perceived distance also vary with the composition of the stimulus set. In this paper, we suggest that context-induced violations of invariance in preference and in similarity judgments are based on changes in the underlying cognitive representation. Using the case of attraction effect as our example, we demonstrate experimentally that (i) similarity or the distance between two brands changes as a function of new brand introduction and (ii) rather precise predictions can be made as to the pattern of changes in the distance between brands and changes in preference ordering. Furthermore, the effect of context on similarity judgment patterns allows us to identify new effects on preference for previously untested location of new brands, providing additional support for the claim that preference and similarity judgments involve common processes.     

The Effect of Decision Strategy on Deciding to Defer Choice

Recent research has examined consumer decision making when the option of not choosing any of the alternatives is also provided. The findings from this research suggest that the decision to defer choice is sensitive to the uncertainty of choosing the most preferred option from the set of alternatives provided. Building on this research, the author tests whether the decision to defer choice is also influenced by task variables that influence decision uncertainty. In the first experiment, this proposition is tested for choice problems in which information on three relatively equally attractive alternatives is presented either sequentially or simultaneously. As predicted, the preference for the defer-choice option was greater when the three alternatives were presented simultaneously. A second study forced subjects into using one of four decision strategies in order to choose between two non-dominated alternatives. The preference for the no-choice option was found to be higher when the rule required explicit attribute tradeoffs and lower when it simplified choice. These results suggest that choice uncertainty is influenced by the decision strategy used to determine the preference among alternatives. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the results for marketers' communication strategies.     

Emigration as Family Strategy in Chinese Context: Emigration from Fuqing,China

This study explores how family characteristics affect the emigration of family members from the city of Fuqing, China, a major migrant-sending area in China. We focus our discussion on three related questions: how family demographic characteristics affect a family’s participation in emigration, the number of family members involved in emigration, and the locational diversification of family members overseas. Our findings show that family income is related to whether the family has any members overseas and their numbers. Second, a larger family is more likely to participate in migration. These findings are consistent with the argument that migration is a joint family decision. Third, effects of demographic characteristics of different generations on emigration indicate again that migration is a family matter. Finally, our Fuqing findings show no clear patterns of family members settling in the same country if more than one member is overseas.