Social Support in Couples: An Examination of Gender Differences Using Self-report and Observational Methods

We explored gender differences in actual and perceived spousal support in a survey study involving 458 married Belgian couples and in an observational study involving 32 married Belgian couples. Self-reports were used in both studies to assess spouses’ support behaviors and perceived support. These measures were supplemented in Study 2 with measures of observed support behavior and on-line perceived support, as assessed during support interactions. Overall, the self-report measures yielded significant gender differences in support soliciting and support provision, whereas the observational measures did not. Furthermore, the results concerning global and on-line perceived support and support profiles were inconsistent with the “support gap” perspective. These findings were discussed in light of the existing research on gender differences in support and marriage.     

Getting in under the radar. A dyadic view of invisible support

There are many ways in which the provision of social support can be ineffective. Recent research suggests that the benefits of support may be maximized when it is provided invisibly. What remains unknown, however, is whether invisible support reflects the skillful behavior of support providers or recipients' blissful unawareness, as well as how invisible support is delivered during spontaneous social interactions. We hypothesized that both providers' skillful behavior and recipients' unawareness are necessary for invisible support to be effective, and we sought to document what effective invisible support looks like. Eighty-five couples engaged in a videotaped support interaction in the lab. Support recipients whose partners provided more invisible practical and emotional support (coded by observers) but who reported receiving less support experienced the largest preinteraction-to-postinteraction declines in negative emotions. In the case of practical invisible support, the combination of more support and less awareness of that support also predicted increases in self-efficacy. These results indicate that invisible support is a dyadic phenomenon.     

Indirect support seeking and perceptions of spousal support: An examination of a reciprocal relationship

Indirect support seeking has been theoretically identified as a support seeking strategy that may backfire and elicit negative responses or decreases in positive support. Moreover, past support responses that are either inadequate or negative have been theoretically linked to the use of indirect support seeking. Yet, no empirical studies have examined the potential reciprocal relation between indirect support seeking and perceived support in intimate relationships. Utilizing data from 204 new parents, we tested longitudinal cross‐lagged path models to examine the reciprocal relation between indirect support seeking and support perceptions. Results provided partial support for a reciprocal relation between indirect support seeking and perceived negative support responses. Furthermore, indirect support seeking negatively predicted relationship satisfaction across time, through perceived negative support responses.     

The role of social support as a moderator of the acute stress response: In Situ versus empirically-derived associations

Abstract

This investigation was designed to (1) evaluate the role of social support during an acute naturalistic stressor i.e., emergency dental treatment, (2) assess whether an in situ and an empirical measure of support exhibited consistent relationships with anxiety and (3) examine the relationship between the in situ and empirical measures of support. All participants completed a measure of social support prior to treatment and an anxiety measure prior to and following treatment. The effect of support on pre-treatment anxiety, post-treatment anxiety and change in anxiety during the treatment process was assessed. According to the in situ support measure, individuals high in support were accompanied to the clinic, and individuals low in support were unaccompanied. According to the empirical support measure, individuals high in support had actual support scores above the sample median. Individuals low in support had actual support scores below the sample median. Individuals high in in situ support were found to have significantly higher levels of pre-treatment anxiety. No other effects of support were observed for either support measure. Furthermore, while there was some evidence that the in situ and empirical measures of support were associated with consistent outcomes, in the main, they exhibited independence.     

Prospective relations between social support and depression: differential direction of effects for parent and peer support?

The authors tested whether deficits in perceived social support predicted subsequent increases in depression and whether depression predicted subsequent decreases in social support with longitudinal data from adolescent girls (N = 496). Deficits in parental support but not peer support predicted future increases in depressive symptoms and onset of major depression. In contrast, initial depressive symptoms and major depression predicted future decreases in peer support but not parental support. Results are consistent with the theory that support decreases the risk for depression but suggest that this effect may be specific to parental support during early adolescence. Results are also consonant with the claim that depression promotes support erosion but imply that this effect may only occur with peer support during this period.     

Effects of Sex,Culture, and Support Type on Perceptions of Spousal Social Support: An Assessment of the “Support Gap” Hypothesis in Early Marriage

Several writers have suggested that a “support gap” characterizes modern marriages, with women receiving less support from their spouses than men receive from theirs. Although this support gap hypothesis (SGH) is used increasingly to explain marital interaction and satisfaction, there have been few rigorous evaluations of this hypothesis. In particular, existing research on the support gap has not systematically considered (a) different types of social support; (b) differences in provided vs. received support; (c) differences in reported levels of support desire, experience, and satisfaction; or (d) differences in distinct cultural groups with respect to social support in marriage. The present study provided a multidimensional assessment of desired and experienced spousal social support. Participants were recently married men and women (100 Americans and 102 Chinese) who completed questionnaires providing assessments of desired and experienced levels of spousal support for each of 5 support types. Men and women did not differ systematically with respect to the levels of support they experienced from their spouses; however, women reported desiring significantly higher levels of support from their spouses than did men for all 5 types of support. Evaluation of support satisfaction indicated that both American and Chinese women experience gaps with respect to emotional and esteem support; Chinese women additionally experience a gap in network support. These results specify the nature of marital support gaps much more precisely than previous work and suggest several issues to be addressed in future work.     

Mismatches in social support and psychosocial adjustment to breast cancer.

Emotional support is known to provide psychosocial benefits for women with breast cancer, but women can experience a mismatch between support that is wanted and support that is received from their personal supporter. The role of wanted and unwanted support in psychosocial adjustment was examined in 79 women recovering from breast cancer. Four distinct patterns of desired support actions were found using cluster analysis. Patterns of wanted support were not related to better or worse psychosocial adjustment. However, a misalignment of support between the provider and the receiver significantly influenced psychosocial adjustment, and unwanted but received support (support commission) was uniquely associated with poor psychosocial adjustment. Clinical interventions using the support instrument could help match support providers' actions to receivers' preferences.     

Social support and happiness in immigrant women in Spain

The association between perceived social support and happiness was investigated in women who are members of various associations in Malaga (Spain) that work with immigrant women. Based on the Social Convoy model, the association between sources of support, frequency of support, satisfaction with support, and happiness reported by women were examined. The main social support predictor of happiness was satisfaction with the support received. Thus, the best predictors of happiness were emotional support from the family and instrumental support from the indigenous population and associations. The best predictor of frequency of support was the frequency of informational support received from social services. These results may prove useful for developing lines of action or interventions centred on the social network and the functions that social support can fulfil among immigrant women.     

Ethnicity and Social Support During Pregnancy

Data from two multi-ethnic prospective studies of African American, Latina, and non-Hispanic White pregnant women were used to examine the influence of contextual factors on social support processes during pregnancy. Multiple types of support (perceived support, received support, support satisfaction, network support) and sources of support (baby's father, family, friends) were assessed. The role of ethnicity in social support was examined after controlling for the contribution of related contextual factors (SES, marital status, age, parity, employment) to these processes. The impact of ethnicity and related contextual factors differed across sources of social support. Ethnic differences in support from family and friends, but not from the baby's father, emerged. However, marital status was a consistent predictor of support from the baby's father, and SES was a consistent predictor of support from friends. Overall, the findings of two studies suggest that although ethnicity is associated with support from friends and family, other contextual factors, such as marital status and SES, influence support processes during pregnancy.     

Church-Based Social Support and Religious Coping

The purpose of this study is twofold: to explore the nature of church-based social support, and to see whether support received in religious settings is related to the use of religious coping methods. The data come from a nationwide survey of members of the Presbyterian Church USA. Three dimensions of religious support are examined in detail: emotional support from church members, spiritual support from church members, and emotional support from the pastor. These dimensions of support are used to evaluate an issue that has been largely overlooked in the literature—the relationship between religious support and religious coping. The findings reveal that people are especially inclined to use positive religious coping responses when they receive spiritual support from church members. Even though emotional support from the pastor also increases the use of religious coping methods, the relationship is not as strong. Finally, emotional support from church members has no effect.     

The Paradox of Received Social Support: The Importance of Responsiveness

ABSTRACT— Although the perception of available support is associated with positive outcomes, the receipt of actual support from close others is often associated with negative outcomes. In fact, support that is "invisible" (not perceived by the support recipient) is associated with better outcomes than "visible" support. To investigate this paradox, we proposed that received support (both visible and invisible) would be beneficial when it was responsive to the recipient's needs. Sixty-seven cohabiting couples participated in a daily-experience study in which they reported on the support they provided and received each day. Results indicated that both visible and invisible support were beneficial (i.e., associated with less sadness and anxiety and with greater relationship quality) only when the support was responsive. These findings suggest that the nature of support is an important determinant of when received support will be beneficial.     

Giving and receiving social support at work: The roles of personality and reciprocity

Social support is an important variable in occupational stress research and theory, yet little is know about the factors that influence the amount of social support one gives, and receives at work. We examined personality (extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness) and reciprocity as potential antecedents to giving and receiving support from co-workers. Data collected from 108 participants employed in a number of organizations indicated that giving social support was positively associated with the receipt of social support. Both extraversion and agreeableness predicted giving and receiving non-job support and positive work-related support. The relationship between personality and social support received was, in many cases, mediated by social support given.     

四川灾区群众社会支持系统现状及其与主观幸福感的关系

研究5·12汶川地震后四川灾区群众的社会支持系统现状及其与主观幸福感之间的关系。方法：使用自编社会支持量表和简式主观幸福感问卷对四川省什邡市洛水镇村民和温州地区居民的社会支持和主观幸福感调查了解,社会支持源被划分为8个,共有2个项目,主观幸福感包括3个分量表,分别是12个项目的积极情绪和消极情绪以及5个条目的生活满意度。结果：1）灾区社会支持按照来源可分为人情支持与公共支持;2）在灾难后,什邡地区的群众更依赖于公共支持而温州地区群众更依赖于人情支持;3）公共支持与消极情绪之间存在显著的负相关。结论：除了与温州地区一样都依赖于人情支持外,四川灾区群众更依赖于公共支持,尤其是中央政府的支持,并且公共支持有助于缓解受灾群众的消极情绪。     

Reciprocal support provision: personality as a moderator?

In some cases, support provision can be predicted by the history of prior social exchange. Receiving may encourage providing. Moreover, personality dispositions may moderate the degree to which persons reciprocate support. Co‐student dyads (N = 43) facing an exam repeatedly reported their levels of received and provided support. Data revealed both direct and moderated reciprocal support provision. Actors' receipt of emotional support predicted the subsequent change in actors' provision of emotional support, indicating reciprocity. Also, more reciprocal emotional support provision was found in introverted and open individuals, whereas more reciprocal instrumental support provision was observed in introverts and less open individuals. Findings were partially validated when partner‐provided support instead of actor‐received support served as the predictor of later support provision. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

社会支持与心血管反应的实验室研究概述

从20世纪70年代起国内外学者开始兴起了对社会支持的研究,而对社会支持与心血管健康的关系研究一直都是社会支持研究领域中的重要课题。本文回顾了社会支持在心血管反应的实验室研究中操作性的定义;实验室研究中社会支持与心血管健康的关系、社会支持对心血管反应作用的影响因素、社会支持的作用机制、社会支持的测量方法及社会支持与心血管反应实验室研究的局限性。     

The influence of functional social support on executive functioning in middle-aged African Americans

Social support has a positive influence on cognitive functioning and buffers cognitive decline in older adults. This study examined the relations between social support and executive functioning in middle-aged adults. A community-based sample of African Americans completed the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, a measure of functions of social support, and two measures of executive functioning, the Stroop Color and Word Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to explore the hypothesis that different facets of perceived social support influence performance on measures of executive functioning. After controlling for age, gender, and education, social support facets including belonging support, self-esteem support, appraisal support, and tangible support were significant predictors of Stroop performance. In addition, tangible support significantly predicted WCST performance. These findings add to previous literature on social support and cognition; however, findings for middle-aged adults are unique and suggest that social support has a positive influence on some executive functions in African Americans prior to old age.     

Sense or sensibility? Social sharers’ evaluations of socio-affective vs. cognitive support in response to negative emotions

When in emotional distress, people often turn to others for social support. A general distinction has been made between two types of support that are differentially effective: Whereas socio-affective support temporarily alleviates emotional distress, cognitive support may contribute to better long-term recovery. In the current studies, we examine what type of support individuals seek. We first confirmed in a pilot study that these two types of support can be reliably distinguished. Then, in Study 1, we experimentally tested participants’ support evaluations in response to different emotional situations using a vignette methodology. Findings showed that individuals perceived any type of reaction that included socio-affective support as preferable. The evaluation of cognitive support, however, was dependent on the specific emotion: Unlike worry and regret, anger and sadness were characterised by a strong dislike for purely cognitive support. Using different materials, Study 2 replicated these findings. Taken together, the findings suggest that individuals evaluate different types of support in a way that is unlikely to benefit emotional recovery in the long run.     

The influence of social support and problematic support on optimism and depression in chronic illness: a prospective study evaluating self-esteem as a mediator.

The present study focused on the mechanism through which social and problematic support affects psychological adjustment in chronic illness. The authors hypothesized that self-esteem would mediate the relations between social and problematic support and adjustment. Eighty-six end-stage renal disease patients were assessed twice for social support problematic support, and self-esteem. Adjustment was assessed twice by depression and optimism. Mediational analyses indicated that social support operated through self-esteem to influence optimism cross-sectionally and prospectively and depression cross-sectionally. Social support was associated with high self-esteem, which in turn increased optimism and was related to decreased depression. Problematic support was unrelated to self-esteem obviating mediational analysis. Disaggregating social support into subscales showed that belonging support predicted decreases in depression, and both tangible and belonging support predicted increases in optimism.     

Supportive relationships in later life

We adopted a multidimensional approach to the study of the social support convoys of older adults. We distinguished between age and gender differences in four specific dimensions of the social support convoy: (a) existence versus functioning of relationships in the convoy, (b) kinds of relationships (i.e., those with children, siblings, and friends), (c) types of social support (i.e., emotional support, respect, and health support), and (d) receipt versus provision of support. Using a national survey of 718 adults, multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were performed to determine age and gender differences in these four dimensions of social support. The multidimensional approach was useful in pinpointing those aspects of the social support convoy affected by aging. We anticipated that the social support convoy would be devastated by aging. Instead, we found that older people received less support (i.e., emotional and health support) in the absence of sibling relationships. Otherwise, the effects of aging had more to do with what the older person contributed to the convoy than with what he or she received. Women had better social support resources than men, particularly within their friendships. We found no evidence, however, that women's social support advantage counterbalanced the effects of aging on the convoy.