Evidence for menstrual cycle shifts in women's preferences for masculinity

Over the last decade, a growing literature has shown that women in the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle demonstrate stronger preferences for men with masculine traits than they do when in the non-fertile phases of the cycle (see Gangestad and Thornhill, 2008 and Jones et al., 2008 for recent reviews). In a recent article, Harris (in press; Sex Roles) failed to replicate this increase in women's preferences for masculine faces when women are near ovulation. Harris represented her study as one of only three studies on the topic, and as the largest of the existing studies. There are, however, many more studies on menstrual cycle shifts in preferences for facial masculinity in the published literature, including one that is 2.5 times larger in size than the Harris study. In this article, we review the evidence for cyclic shifts in mate preferences and related behaviors and discuss weaknesses of Harris's methods. Considered as a whole, the evidence for menstrual cycle shifts in women's preferences and behaviors is compelling, despite the failure of replication reported by Harris.     

Shifts in Women’s Mate Preferences Across the Ovulatory Cycle: A Critique of Harris (2011) and Harris (2012)

Many studies have documented systematic shifts in women’s mate preferences and sexual motivations across the ovulatory cycle. Harris (2012) presents a nonreplication of one particular finding in this literature—namely, that women’s preference for masculinity in men’s faces shifts across the cycle. Harris critiques the empirical and theoretical literature on cycle shifts and concludes that the cycle shift hypothesis should be abandoned. Here, we situate Harris’s findings within the broader empirical literature and respond to several of the points in her critique. We conclude that the evidence for cycle shifts in women‘s mate preferences and sexual motivations is much stronger than Harris portrays and that she mischaracterizes the theoretical basis of this work.     

Would male conspicuous consumption capture the female eye? Menstrual cycle effects on women's attention to status products

In line with evolutionary principles of reproduction and mate selection, the current research shows that women's attention to status cues fluctuates across their menstrual cycle. Specifically, we show that women pay more attention to status products in a visual display around ovulation than in other phases of their menstrual cycle. Pill use eliminates these cycle phase effects. The results are discussed in relation to research on female mating goals and conspicuous consumption.     

Breadwinner Seeks Bottle Warmer: How Women’s Future Aspirations and Expectations Predict Their Current Mate Preferences

Contemporary women in Western cultures are often trying to juggle careers alongside personal and societal expectations for childrearing in an effort to “have it all.” We examine the effects of this balancing act on heterosexual women’s mate selection motivations. Across three Canadian samples (n?=?360), we tested concurrent hypotheses about the desirability of both similar and complementary characteristics in a potential mate. Specifically, women’s aspirations (to prioritize career over family) and their expectations for the roles they will most likely adopt within their future partnerships (primary breadwinner and/or caregiver) were tested as key predictors of mate preferences. Although specific effects varied across samples, a mega-analysis of the combined sample and an internal meta-analysis of effect sizes from the three studies provided support for both complementary and similarity motives (controlling for gender role attitudes). Women’s aspirations to prioritize career (over family) predicted greater similarity in mate preferences, such that they placed less importance on men’s parenting qualities, more importance on their access to financial resources, and preferred a career-oriented over family-oriented exemplar. However, women’s expectations of actually taking on the breadwinner role predicted greater complementarity in mate preferences (greater desirability of parenting qualities and a family-oriented partner; with financial resources rated as less important). Our work expands current understanding of women’s decision-making processes when selecting a mate and has implications for men’s changing traits and roles.

     

Extraversion predicts individual differences in women’s face preferences

Extraversion is positively associated with various indices of women’s mate quality (e.g., facial symmetry and attractiveness). Since such indices are thought to predict variation in women’s preferences for masculine men, we investigated the relationships between each of the ‘Big 5’ personality factors and women’s preferences for facial masculinity. Extraversion, but not the other four personality factors, was positively correlated with women’s preferences for masculinity in men’s, but not women’s, faces. Additionally, extraversion mediated the positive relationship between women’s self-rated attractiveness and their preferences for masculinity in men’s faces, suggesting that extraversion may play a role in condition-dependent mate preferences. Unexpectedly, openness to experience was associated with women’s preferences for femininity in faces of both sexes and this association was independent of that between extraversion and women’s preferences for masculine men. This is the first study that we know of to implicate personality traits in individual differences in women’s preferences for masculine men.     

性激素对人类择偶偏好的影响

择偶是一种重要的心理、社会和文化现象,婚恋择偶除了会受当下社会文化习俗等人文因素的影响,也受到个体生理机制的影响。本文聚焦热点,从进化心理学的角度阐述性激素对人类择偶偏好的影响。女性的择偶偏好受生理周期激素变化的影响,男性的择偶则会因为体内睾酮含量的不同而发生变化。性激素不仅影响人的心理和行为,还会影响人类择偶决策的神经机制。未来的相关研究应关注生理周期的测定方法、被试的文化背景和个体间的差异等。     

Women's preferences for male behavioral displays change across the menstrual cycle

Abstract— Women prefer both the scent of symmetrical men and masculine male faces more during the fertile (late follicular and ovulatory) phases of their menstrual cycles than during their infertile (e.g., luteal) phases. Men's behavioral displays in social settings may convey signals that affect women's attraction to men even more strongly. This study examined shifts in women's preferences for these behavioral displays. A sample of 237 normally ovulating women viewed 36 or 40 videotaped men who were competing for a potential lunch date and then rated each man's attractiveness as a short-term and a long-term mate. As predicted, women's preference for men who displayed social presence and direct intrasexual competitiveness increased on high-fertility days relative to low-fertility days, but only in a short-term, not a long-term, mating context. These findings add to the growing literature indicating that women's mate preferences systematically vary across the reproductive cycle.     

Female sexual orientation and menstrual influences on person perception

Heterosexual women have previously been shown to display enhanced sensitivity to information that is both reproductively- and sexually-relevant (e.g., sexually mature male faces) during phases of high fertility. In the present study, homosexual women who maintained a regular menstrual cycle and did not use hormonal contraceptives completed a sex-categorization task at periods of high and low fertility within their menstrual cycle. For homosexual women there is a separation between reproductively-relevant (i.e., sexually mature males) and sexually-relevant (i.e., sexually mature females) targets. Our participants showed enhanced sensitivity to sexually-relevant information (i.e., female faces) at high fertility but showed no fluctuation in sensitivity to reproductively-relevant information (i.e., male faces) across testing sessions. These findings are considered in terms of adaptive person perception and the impact of sexual desire on mate preferences.     

Effects of menstrual cycle phase on aggression measured in the laboratory

This study investigated the effects of menstrual cycle phase on aggression in two groups of women, which differed in the severity of their self-reported perimenstrual symptoms. A low- and a high-symptom group were recruited using the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) to define the groups. Twenty-two subjects (11 low and 11 high symptom) participated across one menstrual cycle: during the premenstrual, menstrual, midfollicular, and ovulatory phases. The Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm was used to assess aggression on each day of participation. There were three main findings; a) rates of aggressive responding did not vary across phases of the menstrual cycle; b) the high-symptom group emitted higher rates of aggressive responding across the menstrual cycle than did the low-symptom group; and c) rates of aggressive responding correlated with the MDQ's behavioral and psychological scales and not the somatic scales. These findings indicate that the menstrual cycle phase does not differentially affect this laboratory measure of aggression. The differences found between the two symptom groups parallel a few reports indicating that women who differ in retrospectively reported mood and behavioral changes related to their menstrual cycle also differ on a number of other psychometric measures. Aggr. Behav. 24:9–26, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Shifts in Masculinity Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle: Still Not There

Harris (2011) failed to find support for the popular hypothesis that women are attracted to masculine-faced men when conception is likely but attracted to feminine-faced men during other menstrual cycle phases. In response, DeBruine et al. (2010) wrote a commentary criticizing Harris theoretical analysis and data (e.g., sample age). The current paper addresses those criticisms with new data analysis, additional literature review, and logical arguments. Harris’ results are not attributable to her sample’s age; no preference shift was found for the subsample of women under 30 years old and no hint of an interaction existed between participant age group and menstrual cycle phase. This work also revisits the questionable assumptions inherent in the cycle shift hypothesis and reviews literature that suggests such assumptions are not tenable.     

Mate value and mate preferences: An investigation into decisions made with and without constraints

Studies have long investigated similarities and differences in men’s and women’s mate preferences. This study sought to expand on previous research by investigating whether mate value moderated participants’ design of mates. Using both a budgeted and a non-budgeted mate design task, we investigated the effect of mate value on the design of a mate. We found that mate value consistently predicted the design of a mate in an unbudgeted task, whereas we found more mixed results in the budgeted task. Ultimately, it appears that participants with a higher level of mate value are more demanding in their design of a mate.     

Cyclic changes in pain perception: An ROC analysis

The rating scale responses of three groups of men and women to thermal and painful radiant heat stimuli were studied over a 4-week period. Receiver operating characteristic curve parameters were computed for each of the phases of the menstrual cycle. Women with normal menstrual periods experienced a heightened sensitivity to pain during ovulation. This effect was absent in women using oral contraceptive pills and in men. The findings demonstrate that past reports of pain threshold changes in association with menstrual phase were basically sensory effects and not just a result of shifts in the observer’s criteria for reporting pain. In addition, sex differences in pain perception were found only when men were compared with women who were ovulating.     

Changes in women’s interpersonal styles across the menstrual cycle

Past research suggests that women alter their behaviors during periods of high fertility to attract mates. Consistent with this notion, the current research examined the interpersonal style, as defined by the interpersonal circumplex, men tend to find most attractive in potential mates and the change in women’s interpersonal styles across the menstrual cycle. In Study 1, a sample of 101 single men reported the interpersonal style they found most attractive in a potential mate. In Study 2, a sample of 86 women reported their interpersonal styles during each day of their menstrual cycle. Results indicated that men tended to prefer mates who were interpersonally warm and that women tended to become more interpersonally warm during periods of high fertility.     

Menstrual cycle as focus of study and self-reports of moods and behaviors

Retrospective questionnaires show cyclical variations in moods and behaviors across the menstrual cycle. However, results obtained from daily mood questionnaires are inconsistent. In the present study, which ran for 11 weeks, self-report measures of menstrual symptomatology, using the 8-factor Moos (1968, 1969 a,c) Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ), were investigated. The MDQ was administered under conditions that made the menstrual cycle a salient (retrospective questionnaire) or not a salient (daily questionnaire) part of the study. The study included women who were taking and not taking oral contraceptives. A 2×3 analysis of variance (with the two groups of women and three menstrual cycle phases as independent variables) yielded broad cyclical variations only in the menstrual cycle salient condition. When the menstrual cycle was not a salient part of the study, only the pain factor reached significant cyclical variation (p<.01).A 2×3 analysis of variance (with the two types of questionnaires and three menstrual cycle phases as independent variables) indicated that for women not taking oral contraceptives the two questionnaires differed on pain (p<.01), concentration (p<.01), autonomic reaction (p<.05), and water retention (p<.01). Phase effects were significant on all factors, with largest cyclical variations in the menstrual cycle salient condition. A similar analysis for women taking oral contraceptives yielded fewer significant differences. These results suggest that questionnaires that make the menstrual cycle a salient part of the study may exaggerate possible cyclical variations in moods and behaviors.The authors are grateful to Dawn Christie Burns and Ross Hodges for their help in data reduction.     

Pain perception to the cold pressor test during the menstrual cycle in relation to estrogen levels and a comparison with men

Animal and human research has shown that pain sensitivity changes during the menstrual cycle. This has sometimes been ascribed to hormonal variations. The aim of the present study was to examine how perception of pain, induced by the cold pressor test to the dominant hand, was related to gender and phases of the menstrual cycle. A repeated-meausres design was used, where twenty-two female students participated at two different phases of the menstrual cycle (days 2–4 and days 20–24). A control group of nineteen male students participated on two occasions, separated by a three week period. The cycle phase during which each woman began her participation was randomized. Pain was induced using the cold pressor test. Pain threshold was determined as the duration of time between when the subject first reported pain and exposure to the painful stimulus. Pain tolerance was determined as the duration of time until the subject withdraw her/his hand from the test water because the pain was too intensive. The results showed that men tolerated significantly greater pain than women. Women’s pain threshold was significantly higher during the second phase of the menstrual cycle. Systolic pressure was higher in men than women, increasing more in men in response to cold pressor testing than women. Further research, including measurments of plasma hormone levels during the menstrual cycle, is needed to clarify the role played by estrogens in pain perception.     

Cooperation as a signal of genetic or phenotypic quality in female mate choice? Evidence from preferences across the menstrual cycle

Previous research highlighting the role sexual selection may play in the evolution of human cooperation has yet to distinguish what qualities such behaviours actually signal. The aim here was to examine whether female preferences for male cooperative behaviours are because they signal genetic or indirect phenotypic quality. This was possible by taking into account female participants' stage of menstrual cycle, as much research has shown that females at the most fertile stage show greater preferences specifically for signals of genetic quality than any other stage, particularly for short-term relationships. Therefore, different examples of cooperation (personality, costly signals, heroism) and the mate preferences for altruistic traits self-report scale were used across a series of four experiments to examine females' attitudes towards cooperation in potential mates for different relationship lengths at different stages of the menstrual cycle. The results here consistently show that female fertility had no effect on perceptions of cooperative behaviour, and that such traits were considered more important for long-term relationships. Therefore, this provides strong evidence that cooperative behaviour is important in mate choice as predominantly a signal of phenotypic rather than genetic quality.     

Pain perception across the menstrual cycle phases in women with chronic pain

The menstrual cycle has been reported to alter pain perception but the patterns differ among studies. It has been reported that estrogens may influence somatic sensory processes. The present aim was to investigate whether the perception of pain varies by phases of the menstrual cycle. 20 women with chronic low pain volunteered to participate and were asked to rate their pain each day during three successive menstrual cycles. The menstrual cycle was divided into four and five phases to be able to compare results. Analysis showed there were phase differences in pain ratings during the menstrual cycle. Regardless of whether the menstrual cycle was divided into four or five phases, women rated pain significantly higher in the menstrual and premenstrual phases than in the midmenstrual and ovulatory phases. This is consistent with other studies showing less pain sensitivity during phases of the menstrual cycle associated with high estrogen. Women with high pain frequency reported more frequently a passive coping style and catastrophizing thoughts.     

面孔吸引力、人格标签对于男女择偶偏好的影响

通过对征婚启事、婚姻统计资料等的分析发现相貌、身材对于男性择偶重要, 能力、资源和个性等对于女性择偶重要。本研究运用实验法进一步探讨了面孔吸引力、人格标签及其交互对于大学生理想择偶偏好的影响。研究结果表明：(1)对于漂亮异性, 男性与其成为情侣的意愿显著高于女性; 而对于不漂亮的异性, 男性与其成为情侣的意愿明显低于女性。(2)对于积极词汇标签下的异性, 女性与其成为情侣的意愿显著高于男性; 而对于消极词汇标签下的异性, 女性与其成为情侣的意愿显著低于男性。(3)与消极词汇标签比较, 积极词汇标签使被试更愿意与其成为情侣, 但这种意愿的提高在相对漂亮的面孔上表现得更加明显。(4)大五人格的五个维度对择偶意愿都有影响, 影响力依次为尽责性、随和性、开放性、情绪稳定性和外倾性。女性更喜欢外向的男性, 但女性是否外向对男性择偶无影响。研究结果为理解择偶行为的性别差异提供了实验性证据。     

Changes in women's mate preferences across the ovulatory cycle

Previous research has shown that women's mate preferences change across the ovulatory cycle in a number of ways. The leading explanation for these changes--the good genes hypothesis--predicts that women should prefer presumed markers of genetic benefits ("good genes") most strongly when they are fertile and evaluating men as possible short-term mates. Research testing this hypothesis has almost exclusively examined preferences for purported markers of good genes. Little is known about how preferences for men who display traits valued in long-term, investing mates (e.g., warmth and faithfulness) change across the cycle. The authors had women at different points in their ovulatory cycle rate videotapes of men in terms of how attractive they found each man as a short-term and long-term mate. The authors then examined how women's preferences for traits typically valued in long-term and/or short-term mates varied according to women's fertility status. The results supported the good genes hypothesis. Implications of these findings for models of human mating are discussed.     

MOOD FLUCTUATIONS

Mood fluctuations in women and men were studied both prospectively and retrospectively to determine whether cyclic changes occur over phases of the menstrual cycle, lunar cycle, and/or days of the week. The participants (15 women using oral contraceptives, 12 normally cycling women, and 15 men), who did not know the purpose of the study, recorded the pleasantness, arousal, and stability of their moods daily for 70 days (concurrent data). Later they recalled (retrospective data) their average mood for each day of the week and phase of the menstrual cycle (women only). The only evidence of mood fluctuation over the menstrual cycle in the concurrent reports was that normally cycling women reported more pleasant moods in the follicular and menstrual phase than did men and women on oral contraceptives. Women's moods fluctuated less over the menstrual cycle than over days of the week. Recollections of menstrual mood changes differed from actual changes: Women recalled more pleasant moods in the follicular phase and more unpleasant moods in the premenstrual and menstrual phases than they had reported concurrently. Bias also was evident in recollections of weekday mood fluctuations: Weekend highs were exaggerated and Monday blues were reported even though they were not reported concurrently. There was no evidence of mood fluctuations over the lunar cycle and the groups did not differ in mood stability. The retrospective reporting bias for both the mensural cycle and days of week suggests the influence of stereotypes about moods. Implications for research and practice are discussed.