Detection of coached general malingering on the MMPI-2

The current study examined the effects of validity-scale coaching on one's ability to feign general psychopathology. College students were coached on malingering strategies and completed the MMPI-2. Their responses were compared with students asked to malinger psychopathology without validity-scale coaching and with psychiatric inpatients completing the MMPI-2 under standard instructions. In accordance with previous research (e.g., J. R. Graham, D. Watts, & R. E. Timbrook, 1991), uncoached malingerers were adequately discriminated from patients by using the Infrequency (F) scale. However, as suggested by previous research (R. Rogers, R. M. Bagby, & D. Chakraborty, 1993), the F scale was not as effective at classifying coached malingerers. It was found that other validity indicators, such as the Infrequency Psychopathology Scale were more accurate at discriminating between coached malingerers and hospitalized patients.     

Detection of feigned mental disorders: a meta-analysis of the MMPI-2 and malingering

The validity of test data from multiscale inventories is dependent on self-reports that may be easily distorted by malingering. In examining the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2's (MMPI-2) role in the assessment of feigning, this review provides a conceptual analysis of the detection strategies underlying the MMPI-2 validity scales. The conceptual analysis is augmented by comprehensive meta-analysis of 65 MMPI-2 feigning studies plus 11 MMPI-2 diagnostic studies. For the rare-symptoms strategy, Fp (Cohen's d = 2.02) appears especially effective across diagnostic groups; its cut scores evidence greater consistency than most validity indicators. The data supported the F as an effective scale but questioned the routine use of Fb. Among the specialized scales, Ds appeared especially useful because of its sophisticated strategy, consistent cut score, and minimalfalse-positives. General guidelines are offeredfor specific MMPI-2 validity scales in the assessment of malingering with specific diagnoses.     

The utility of the MMPI-2 malingering discriminant function index in the detection of malingering: a study of criminal defendants

This study examined the utility of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2's (MMPI-2) malingering discriminant function index (M-DFI), recently developed by Bacchiochi and Bagby, in the detection of malingering in a forensic sample. Criminal defendants were divided into "malingering" and "not malingering" groups using the structured interview of reported symptoms (SIRS) criteria proposed by Rogers. Logistic regression analysis (LRA) revealed that the MMPI-2 infrequency (F) scale had the best predictive utility of the traditional infrequency scales. Although the M-DFI did significantly differentiate the malingering from the not malingering groups, it did not add significantly to the predictive utility of the MMPI-2 F scale. Receiver operating characteristics analyses demonstrated acceptable sensitivity and specificity for the MMPI-2 F scale, but poor sensitivity for the M-DFI scale. The results are discussed in terms of the utility of the M-DFI in detecting malingering and problems of extending the findings of simulation studies to the forensic context.     

The Development of a Preliminary Creativity Scale for the MMPI-2: The C Scale

A creativity scale was developed for the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Indicator, 2nd edition (MMPI-2). A criterion-based, contrasting group strategy was implemented using the Creative Behavior Inventory (CBI; Hocevar, 1979 Hocevar , D. ( 1979 ). The development of the Creative Behavior Inventory . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Rocky Mountain Psychological Association . (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 170 350) . [Google Scholar]) to define high versus low creative groups. Two-thirds of the valid 192 data sets were randomly selected to identify the MMPI-2 items included for consideration in the creativity (C) scale. The remaining third of the sample served to determine the psychometric properties of the 31 item C scale, which was found to have adequate discriminant ability and reliability. MMPI-2 scales with significant correlations to the C scale were Scale 4, Scale 5, Scale 9, and Scale O; as well as GF, MAC-R, ES, and SOD.     

Classification accuracy of MMPI-2 validity scales in the detection of pain-related malingering: a known-groups study

The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2nd edition (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) validity indicators in the detection of malingering in clinical patients with chronic pain using a hybrid clinical-known groups/simulator design. The sample consisted of patients without financial incentive (n = 23), nonmalingering patients with financial incentive (n = 34), patients definitively determined to be malingering based on published criteria ( n = 32), and college students asked to simulate pain-related disability (n = 26). The MMPI-2 validity scales differentiated malingerers from nonmalingerers with a high degree of accuracy. Hypochondriasis and Hysteria were also effective. For all variables except Scale L, more extreme scores were associated with higher specificity. This study demonstrates that the MMPI-2 is capable of differentiating intentional exaggeration from the effects on symptom report of chronic pain, genuine psychological disturbance, and concurrent stress associated with pursuing a claim in a medico-legal context.     

Validation of the MMPI-2 Low Self-Esteem Content Scale

We explored the concurrent validity of the MMPI-2 Low Self-Esteem (LSE) Content scale by asking 216 undergraduate students to complete the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1991), Harter Adult Self-Perception Profile (Harter, 1986a), and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). Results suggest the LSE renders a good assessment of global self-esteem as well as being a measure of three distinct components of self-esteem. These specific subscales, identified by factor analysis, were labeled Ineptitude, Negative Self-Value, and Negative Comparison with Others. The LSE and its subscales produced good internal consistency (alpha and Gutman Split Half) coefficients.     

Development and validation of a Response Bias Scale (RBS) for the MMPI-2

This study describes the development of a Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) scale designed to detect negative response bias in forensic neuropsychological or disability assessment settings. The Response Bias Scale (RBS) consists of 28 MMPI-2 items that discriminated between persons who passed or failed the Word Memory Test (WMT), Computerized Assessment of Response Bias (CARB), and/or Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) in a sample of 1,212 nonhead-injury disability claimants. Incremental validity of the RBS was evaluated by comparing its ability to detect poor performance on four separate symptom validity tests with that of the F and F(P) scales and the Fake Bad Scale (FBS). The RBS consistently outperformed F, F(P), and FBS. Study results suggest that the RBS may be a useful addition to existing MMPI-2 validity scales and indices in detecting symptom complaints predominantly associated with cognitive response bias and overreporting in forensic neuropsychological and disability assessment settings.     

Diagnostic accuracy of the MMPI-2 Malingering Discriminant Function Index in the detection of malingering among inmates

The MMPI-2 Malingering Discriminant Function Index (M-DFI) was designed to detect malingerers educated about MMPI-2 validity indicators. However, given current attorney practices, the clinical utility of the M-DFI lies in its ability to detect examinees who are cautioned about the indicators. In this study, we compared 45 inmate simulators cautioned to avoid detection on the MMPI-2 with 46 psychiatric inmates who completed the MMPI-2 under standard instructions. Logistic regression analyses indicated that although the M-DFI performed better than several individual indicators, results were mixed for combinations of indicators, and the M-DFI did not outperform different sets of existing indicators. These findings support existing strategies to detect malingering on the MMPI-2. We discuss considerations concerning the clinical applicability of M-DFI.     

Effect of symptom information and validity scale information on the malingering of depression on the MMPI-2

MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) data from college students who were attempting to malinger depression (199 women and 171 men) were compared to MMPI-2 data from students who responded honestly (50 women and 45 men). Mean MMPI-2 scores were compared with analyses of variance, and students' success in malingering depression was evaluated with criteria based on cutting scores for validity indexes and on the clinical scales commonly associated with depression. Students who were given information about the validity scales or about the symptoms of depression were more successful at malingering than students who received no information, indicating that malingerers of depression may be able to elude detection by the MMPI-2 if they are informed about the validity scales or the symptoms of depression.     

MMPI-2 Content Scale Validity Within a Sample of Chronic Pain Patients

The concurrent, criterion-related and discriminant validity of four of the MMPI-2 content scales were examined within a population of 309 patients being evaluated for the treatment of chronic pain. Utilizing both self-report and therapist-derived criteria, the MMPI-2 content scales designed to assess symptoms of anxiety (ANX), depression (DEP), low self-esteem (LSE), and anger (ANG) demonstrated the ability to provide valid information beyond that provided by the traditional MMPI-2 clinical and validity indices. Further, a multi-trait/multi-method analytic approach revealed; (1) strong discriminant validity for the ANG content scale and (2) substantial variance overlap among all the self-report measures of subjective distress, compromising our efforts to evaluate the discriminant validity of the ANX, DEP, and LSE content scales.     

The clinical utility of the MMPI-2 Antisocial Practices Content Scale

This study explored the ability of the MMPI-2 Antisocial Practices Content Scale (ASP) to correctly classify DSM-IV Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD). ASP scores and scores on the MMPI-2 Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) scale were compared in an APD group (n = 10), a Borderline Personality Disorder group (n = 16), a Narcissistic Personality Disorder group (n = 9), an Other Personality Disorder group (representing personality disorders from Clusters A and C; n = 14), and a nonclinical population (NC; n = 67). The ASP exhibited an ability to differentiate APD from other personality disorders and was significantly correlated to DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for APD while the Pd was not. Diagnostic efficiency statistics (sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive power, negative predictive power, overall correct classification rate, and kappa) were calculated under four different conditions in a clinically relevant manner (Kessel & Zimmerman, 1993. Psychological Assessment, 53, 395-399). The results of this study illustrate the usefulness of the ASP as a tool for the assessment of antisocial attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors in individuals suspected of having APD. This information may be valuable to clinicians who are planning treatment or assessing treatment outcome for clients with APD.     

Normative data for the F(p) scale of the MMPI-2: implications for clinical and forensic assessment of malingering

Data from several clinical samples and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory--2 standardization group are presented to familiarize the reader with response patterns of different groups on a new validity scale designed to assist in the identification of exaggeration or fabrication of psychological disturbance. Sensitivity-specificity analyses are included along with suggestions for use of the F(p) Scale with other validity scales. Cautions about setting single cutoff scores are also discussed.     

Psychometric properties and predictive validity of the Mt Scale of the MMPI-2

The College Maladjustment (Mt) Scale is a 41-item supplementary scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. It was designed to identify college students classified as maladjusted. Very little research has been conducted on the Mt Scale in the 40 years since its inception. The current study had the following four goals: (a) provide additional data on the internal consistency reliability, (b) examine the relationship between Mt Scale scores and various school-related domains, (c) examine the relationship between Mt scores and indices of distress (trauma exposure, post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD] symptoms, and history of psychological treatment), and (d) examine the diagnostic accuracy of cutting scores across the full spectrum of possible scores using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses. The Mt Scale is relatively internally consistent (alpha = .85). Elevations on the Mt Scale were significantly associated with lower current grade point average, arriving late to classes more often, the PTSD symptoms of avoidance and arousal, and a history of treatment. Last, the findings from the ROC analyses suggest that the previously obtained cutting scores of 15 and 22 are too low and that values of 29 or higher are more likely to yield the best diagnostic utility values.     

Further validation of the MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF Response Bias Scale: findings from disability and criminal forensic settings

The present study extends the validation of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) Response Bias Scale (RBS; R. O. Gervais, Y. S. Ben-Porath, D. B. Wygant, & P. Green, 2007) in separate forensic samples composed of disability claimants and criminal defendants. Using cognitive symptom validity tests as response bias indicators, the RBS exhibited large effect sizes (Cohen's ds = 1.24 and 1.48) in detecting cognitive response bias in the disability and criminal forensic samples, respectively. The scale also added incremental prediction to the traditional MMPI-2 and the MMPI-2-RF overreporting validity scales in the disability sample and exhibited excellent specificity with acceptable sensitivity at cutoffs ranging from 90T to 120T. The results of this study indicate that the RBS can add uniquely to the existing MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF validity scales in detecting symptom exaggeration associated with cognitive response bias.     

Construct validity of the MMPI-2 College Maladjustment (Mt) Scale

The construct validity of the MMPI-2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2) College Maladjustment (Mt) Scale was examined using 376 student clients at a university psychological clinic. A principal components analysis and correlations of Mt scale scores with clients' and therapists' ratings of symptoms and functioning showed that the Mt scale identifies the presence of maladjustment as defined in terms of depressive and anxious symptoms. There is no evidence to show that the scale is specific to college students or that it is sensitive to severe psychological disturbance. The Mt scale does not inform the clinician as to why a person is distressed. In addition, there is no evidence from this study to suggest the superiority of the Mt scale over other MMPI-2 maladjustment measures. Therapists should use the entire MMPI-2 profile, not just the Mt scale, to gain the most comprehensive and specific understanding of clients.     

Confidence intervals for the MMPI-2

The confidence intervals for the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) clinical scales were investigated. Based on the clinical scale reliabilities published in the MMPI-2 manual, estimated true scores, standard errors of measurement for estimated true scores, and 95% confidence intervals centered around estimated true scores were calculated at 5-point MMPI-2 T-score intervals. The relationships between obtained T-scores, estimated true T-scores, scale reliabilities, and confidence intervals are discussed. The possible role of error measurement in defining scale high point and code types is noted.     

The utility of MMPI-2 suicide items for assessing suicidal potential: development of a Suicidal Potential Scale

The assessment of suicidal potential is one of the most challenging and stress-inducing tasks facing clinicians. Studies that have attempted to identify specific MMPI codetypes, scales, or individual items predictive of completed suicide have produced inconsistent findings. This study focused on the relationship between the six most direct MMPI-2 suicide items (Items 150, 303, 506, 520, 524, and 530) and verbally reported history of suicidal ideation and behavior among a sample of psychotherapy outpatients (n =116). These six MMPI-2 suicide items provided valuable information regarding suicidal ideation and behavior above and beyond that of verbal self-report. These items were grouped together to create a single scale, the Suicidal Potential Scale (SPS) that manifested strong internal consistency. The SPS provides the clinician with a reliable method of assessing for self-reported suicidal ideation and behavior.     

Examining the impact of unscorable item responses on the validity and interpretability of MMPI-2/MMPI-2-RF Restructured Clinical (RC) Scale scores

This article examined the impact of unscorable item responses on the psychometric validity and practical interpretability of scores on the Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2/Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2/MMPI-2-RF). In analyses conducted with five archival samples, we found that relatively large proportions of unscorable responses (defined as 10% or more of the items scored on a scale) were relatively uncommon, occurring most often in forensic samples. Simulated unscorable responses were inserted in varying proportions (10% to 90%) in place of the responses of participants in two of the archival samples for which criterion data were available. Analyses were conducted to gauge the impact of unscorable responses on the criterion validity of scores on these scales and their interpretability. Impact on validity was evaluated by examining correlations with extra-test variables as a function of increasing levels of unscorable responding. Interpretability was evaluated by examining the proportion of participants who produced clinically elevated RC Scale scores as a function of unscorable responding. Results indicate that whereas scale score validity was relatively robust up to a level of 50% unscorable responses, interpretability was substantially compromised at only 10% unscorable responding. This suggests that prorated scores may be used to correct for the impact of unscorable responses on the interpretability of RC Scale scores at levels as high as 50% unscorable responses. Classification analyses supported this possibility. Further steps needed to explore the feasibility of using prorated scores are discussed.     

Searching for conscientiousness on the MMPI-2

It has been argued that the revised Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) fails to measure the Big Five dimension of conscientiousness (C) an assertion supported by the research finding that none of the factors underlying the MMPI correlate substantially with the C factor of the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI)-a popular operationalization of the Big Five model. In this study we reconsidered the relationship between the MMPI-2 item pool and the C factor of the NEO-PI-R (Form S). Collections of MMPI-2 C markers did not correlate much higher than .5 with the NEO-PI-R factor scale in cross-validation hold-out samples. Most pervasive, however, was the finding that MMPI-2 item markers of C were also strongly (in many cases, more highly) related to the NEO-PI-R factor of neuroticism (N). Efforts to purify collections of MMPI-2 C markers, first by careful item selection and then by suppression of N variance, were met with limited success. Intercorrelations among NEO-PI-R scales suggest that the difficulty in finding markers that discriminate between N and C extends beyond any shortcomings of the MMPI-2 item pool.     

Searching for Conscientiousness on the MMPI-2

It has been argued that the revised Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) fails to measure the Big Five dimension of conscientiousness (C) an assertion supported by the research finding that none of the factors underlying the MMPI correlate substantially with the C factor of the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI)—a popular operationalization of the Big Five model. In this study we reconsidered the relationship between the MMPI-2 item pool and the C factor of the NEO-PI-R (Form S). Collections of MMPI-2 C markers did not correlate much higher than .5 with the NEO-PI-R factor scale in cross-validation hold-out samples. Most pervasive, however, was the finding that MMPI-2 item markers of C were also strongly (in many cases, more highly) related to the NEO-PI-R factor of neuroticism (N). Efforts to purify collections of MMPI-2 C markers, first by careful item selection and then by suppression of N variance, were met with limited success. Intercorrelations among NEO-PI-R scales suggest that the difficulty in finding markers that discriminate between N and C extends beyond any shortcomings of the MMPI-2 item pool.