Diurnal Patterns of Unpleasant Mood: Associations with Neuroticism, Depression, and Anxiety

The literature on symptoms of depression has included diurnal changes in mood. The morning-worse pattern is commonly mentioned. This pattern is often associated with endogenous or vegetative symptoms (e.g., weight and appetite loss, loss of pleasure, psychomotor retardation). However, depression researchers have also identified an evening-worse pattern of mood. This pattern is sometimes thought to be associated with milder depressive symptoms, and may characterize chronic dysthymia rather than clinical depression. The present study examines a nonclinical sample to test the hypothesis that an evening-worse diurnal pattern of mood would be associated with trait neuroticism, anxiety, and subclinical depressive symptoms. An experience sampling methodology was employed to assess mood three times a day for 60 consecutive days. This allowed us to calculate a reliable aggregate score for diurnal mood patterns. The evening-worse pattern was associated with many neurotic features, with scores on depression and anxiety measures, and with a cognitive style indicative of hopelessness. Discussion focuses on how an evening-worse diurnal pattern of mood may be indicative of mild subclinical depression, chronic dysthymia, or personality traits associated with negative affectivity.     

Specificity of Depressive Symptoms and Suicidality in a Juvenile Delinquent Population

Research which has related scores on the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) to suicidality have generally neglected to examine the possibility that specific depressive factors within the CDI may be more predictive of suicidality than the full scale score. Knowledge of such factors would help to explain the relationship between depression and suicidality and improve the prediction of suicidal behavior. The current study examined the relationship of depressive factors to suicidality in a sample of 200 incarcerated juvenile delinquents. The published factor structure for the CDI and one derived from the delinquent population were compared. Results revealed two factors from the derived solution, hopelessness and low self-esteem, to be more powerful predictors of suicidal ideation than the full-scale CDI score. These results suggest that symptoms such as low self-esteem and hopelessness may be responsible for the well-documented relationship between depression and suicidality. Furthermore, it appears that the prediction of suicidality may be improved by examining specific depressive factors in suicide research as opposed to full-scale scores from depression inventories such as the CDI.     

Negative attributional style, hopelessness depression and endogenous depression

The hopelessness theory of depression [Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I. & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: a theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358-372.] postulates that a negative attributional style represents a risk factor for a particular constellation of depressive symptoms, termed 'hopelessness depression'. Four studies tested the relation of negative attributional style to hopelessness depression symptoms versus endogenous depression symptoms. Despite the considerable overlap of hopelessness and endogenous depression symptoms, negative attributional style was more related to the former than the latter, consistent with hopelessness theory.     

Depression as a mediator of negative cognitive style and hopelessness in stress generation

Over the past 20 years, there has been considerable interest in the role of cognitive factors in the stress generation process. Generally, these studies find that depressed individuals, or individuals at cognitive risk for depression, are more likely to experience stressful life events that are in part influenced by their own characteristics and behaviours (i.e., negative dependent events). However, there is still much to be learnt about the mediators of these effects. For example, does the development of depression symptoms explain why individuals at cognitive risk for depression experience increased negative dependent events? Or, is it that increases in cognitive risk explain why depressed individuals experience increased negative dependent events? To explore these questions, a short‐term prospective study was conducted with 209 college students who were given measures of depression, depressogenic risk factors (i.e., negative cognitive style and hopelessness), and negative dependent events at two time points 6 weeks apart. Support was found for three models: (1) depression symptoms mediated the relationship between negative cognitive style and negative dependent events; (2) depression symptoms mediated the relationship between hopelessness and negative dependent events; and (3) first hopelessness and then depression symptoms mediated the relationship between negative cognitive style and negative dependent events in a multiple‐step model. In contrast, the reverse models were not confirmed, suggesting specificity in the direction of the mediational sequence.     

The response styles theory of depression: A test of specificity and causal mediation

This prospective study tested the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components of the response styles theory of depression. In addition, it examined whether rumination predicts increases in anxious as well as depressive symptoms. At Time 1, 87 college students completed measures of rumination, hopelessness, depressive symptoms, and anxious symptoms. Participants also completed measures of hopelessness, depressive symptoms, and anxious symptoms at three time points later in the semester: immediately after receiving their most difficult midterm exam grade (Time 2), 4–8 hours later (Time 3), and 4 days later (Time 4). Regardless of exam outcome, the tendency to ruminate in response to depressed mood was associated with: (1) increases in anxious symptoms between Time 1 and Time 3; and (2) increases in both anxious and depressive symptoms between Time 1 and Time 4. In addition, the relationship between rumination and increases in both depressive and anxious symptoms was mediated by hopelessness. In other words, individuals with a ruminative response style exhibited increases in both depressive and anxious symptoms because they exhibited increases in hopelessness.     

An examination of the response styles theory of depression in third- and seventh-grade children: a short-term longitudinal study

The goal of this study was to test the response styles theory of depression in a sample of 3rd- and 7th-grade children. In addition, we examined whether the relationship between rumination and increases in depressive symptoms is mediated by hopelessness and low self-esteem. The procedure involved an initial assessment in which depressive symptoms, response styles, hopelessness, and self-esteem were assessed. The procedure also involved a follow-up assessment, 6 weeks later, in which depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and self-esteem were reassessed. Children with a ruminative response style exhibited increases in depressive symptoms over the 6-week period. In addition, the relationship between rumination and increases in depressive symptoms was mediated by both hopelessness and low self-esteem. Last, contrary to our hypotheses, neither distraction nor problem-solving response styles predicted decreases in depressive symptoms over the course of the study.     

不同抑郁症状青少年调节不同强度情绪时策略选择的差异

最新研究发现,情绪强度会影响健康个体的情绪调节策略选择。然而,至今尚未有研究考察情绪强度对不同抑郁症状青少年策略选择的影响。对此,本研究通过流调中心用抑郁量表划分出无抑郁、阈下抑郁和抑郁症青少年,进而考察其在面对高-低强度积极-消极日常情绪事件时选择认知重评和认知沉浸的差异。结果发现：当面对高强度积极情绪、低强度积极情绪和低强度消极情绪时,三组被试的策略选择均无显著差异;当面对高强度消极情绪时,无抑郁青少年比阈下抑郁和抑郁症青少年更多选择认知重评而更少选择认知沉浸,但阈下抑郁和抑郁症青少年之间无显著差异。结果表明：不同抑郁症状青少年在面对不同强度和效价情绪时的情绪调节策略选择存在差异,表现为高强度消极情绪下抑郁症状越多的青少年越少选择认知重评而越多选择认知沉浸。这一发现有助于识别和干预青少年的抑郁症状。     

Hopelessness as a Risk Factor for Post‐traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Among Interpersonal Violence Survivors

Post‐traumatic stress disorder often co‐occurs with depression, and they may share common risk factors. One possible common cognitive risk factor is hopelessness. Thus, we examined whether hopelessness was related to symptoms of post‐traumatic stress disorder. Participants were 202 female survivors of interpersonal violence. Relationships between self‐reported and interviewer‐rated measures of hopelessness gathered at 2 weeks post‐trauma and self‐reported and interviewer‐rated symptoms of post‐traumatic stress disorder gathered at 2 weeks and 3 months post‐trauma were examined. Hierarchical, simultaneous regression analyses that co‐varied trauma type revealed that hopelessness was related to self‐reported symptoms of post‐traumatic stress disorder, both concurrently and prospectively. Follow‐up analyses revealed that relationships between hopelessness and symptoms of post‐traumatic stress disorder were due almost entirely to shared variance with depression. No relationships were found between hopelessness and interviewer‐rated symptoms of post‐traumatic stress disorder.     

Adaptive and Maladaptive Perfectionism as Mediators of Adult Attachment Styles and Depression,Hopelessness, and Life Satisfaction

This study examined the relationships between adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism, anxious and avoidant adult attachment styles, depression, hopelessness, and life satisfaction among a sample of 180 undergraduate students. Maladaptive perfectionism mediated the relationship between both forms of adult attachment and depression, hopelessness, and life satisfaction. Adaptive perfectionism mediated the relationship between avoidant adult attachment and hopelessness and life satisfaction. Implications for counselors and future research directions are discussed.     

Cognitive content-specificity in future expectancies: role of hopelessness and intolerance of uncertainty in depression and GAD symptoms

The present study examined cognitive content-specificity in future-event predictions associated with symptoms of depression and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). College undergraduates (N=284) completed measures of depression, GAD, and rated their certainty that a given set of positive and negative outcomes were or were not likely to happen in their future. Participants also completed measures of hopelessness and intolerance of uncertainty (IU). Individuals (N=263) completed the same measures again 6 weeks later. Certainty in an absence of positive future outcomes was associated with symptoms of depression but not GAD, and hopelessness mediated this relationship - concurrently and when examining change scores over 6 weeks. Certainty in negative outcomes was concurrently associated with both symptoms of depression and GAD, and hopelessness partially mediated these relationships. IU predicted concurrent increases in depression and GAD symptoms, and negative-outcome certainty partially mediated the IU-depression but not the IU-GAD symptom relationship. Change in certainty did not mediate the relationship between changes in IU and GAD symptoms but partially mediated the relationship between change in IU and depression symptoms over time. Hopelessness appears to play a unique role in the relationship between reduced anticipation of positive future outcomes and depression. Although less clearly suggested by the data, IU may contribute to both depression and GAD symptoms but may do so through different pathways.     

Cognitive reactivity mediates the relationship between neuroticism and depression

Although neuroticism has long been established as an important risk factor for depression, the mechanisms through which this temperamental predisposition translates into the occurrence of symptoms are still relatively unclear. This study investigated cognitive reactivity, i.e. the ease with which particular patterns of negative thinking are reactivated in response to mild low mood, as a potential mediator. Individuals with (N = 98) and without a previous history of depression (N = 83) who had provided neuroticism scores six years previously were assessed for cognitive reactivity and current symptoms of depression using self-report questionnaires. Tendencies to respond to mild low mood with ruminative thinking mediated the relation between neuroticism and current symptoms of depression in both groups. Reactivation of hopelessness and suicidal thinking occurred as an additional mediator only in those with a history of previous depression. The results suggest that neuroticism predisposes individuals to depression by generally increasing the likelihood of ruminative responses to low mood. In those with a history of depression in the past, neuroticism additionally increases risk of recurrence by facilitating reactivation of previously associated patterns such as suicidal thinking and hopelessness. These findings suggest potential targets for interventions to help preventing the occurrence, or recurrence of depression in those who due to their temperamental predisposition are at an increased risk.     

不同抑郁症状青少年日常情绪调节策略使用的差异

为了考察无抑郁、阈下抑郁和抑郁青少年日常情绪调节策略使用的差异,采用流调中心用抑郁量表和青少年日常情绪调节问卷测量了766名青少年的抑郁症状及其情绪调节策略使用。结果发现：青少年抑郁症状越多,使用认知重评越少,使用认知沉浸、表达抑制和表达宣泄越多。当调节积极情绪时,青少年抑郁症状越多,使用认知重评越少,使用认知沉浸和表达抑制越多,但使用表达宣泄无显著差异;当调节消极情绪时,青少年抑郁症状越多,使用认知重评越少,使用认知沉浸、表达抑制和表达宣泄越多。并且,阈下抑郁青少年的情绪调节策略使用均介于无抑郁和抑郁青少年之间。结果表明,青少年抑郁症状越多,使用认知重评等适应性情绪调节策略越少,使用认知沉浸等非适应性情绪调节策略越多,但具体情绪调节策略的使用可能会受所调节情绪效价的影响。同时,相比无抑郁和抑郁青少年,阈下抑郁青少年的情绪调节策略使用更具识别和干预的价值。     

Naturalistic evaluation of suicidal ideation: variability and relation to attempt status

Suicidal ideation has been thought to have a relatively stable course across weeks and months. However, daily changes in levels of ideation have not been adequately examined despite the importance of potential variability clinically and conceptually. For example, it has been suggested that variability in suicidal ideation may become less closely tied to variability in other mood symptoms (e.g., depression, hopelessness) among individuals with multiple suicide attempts. The present report had two related goals: (1) to prospectively evaluate suicidal ideation and related mood symptoms, and (2) to determine whether suicide attempt status predicted a decreased association between ideation and other mood symptoms. Non-clinical participants (N=108) with varying levels of suicidal ideation and number of previous suicide attempts completed the beck hopelessness scale (BHS), beck depression inventory (BDI), and suicide probability scale (SPS) every day for 4 weeks. Findings suggested considerable variability in suicidal ideation, especially for multiple attempters. Multiple attempt status predicted a decreased association between suicidal ideation and depression, although the results were only marginally significant. These findings have implications for conceptual models of suicide risk as well as assessment and treatment of suicidal individuals.     

The problem-solving diathesis in depression,hopelessness, and suicide ideation: A longitudinal analysis

The problem-solving deficit (PSD) diathesis-stress model of suicide behavior proposed by Clum, Patsiokas, and Luscomb (1979) and expanded by Schotte and Clum (1982, 1987) was examined in a short-term longitudinal test. The present study assessed the relationship between problem-solving deficits at Time 1—prior to the stressor (a D or F on a midterm examination)—and adjustment at Time 2—after the Stressor. Evidence was found for an additive predictive relationship for stress and problem-solving deficits to Time 2 measures of depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and suicide ideation. Evidence was also found that PSD × Stress interactions uniquely predicted the three criteria. The results of this study were taken as evidence of problem-solving deficits functioning as a diathesis for depression, hopelessness, and suicide ideation.     

Prediction of Suicide Intent in Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Adolescent Inpatients: A Research Note

The relationship among depressive symptoms, anxiety, hopelessness, and suicidal intent was explored in a group of 77 adolescents who had been hospitalized after attempting suicide. Regression analyses indicated that hopelessness was the only significant predictor of suicide intent in Caucasian patients, and depressed mood was the only significant predictor in the Aboriginal group. Clinicians should be aware that measures of hopelessness may be of limited value in assessing suicidal risk in Aboriginal adolescents.     

Clarifying the unique associations among intolerance of uncertainty,anxiety, and depression*

Increasing evidence suggests that intolerance of uncertainty (IU) may be a transdiagnostic factor across the anxiety disorders, and to a lesser extent, unipolar depression. Whereas anxiety inherently involves uncertainty regarding threat, depression has traditionally been associated with certainty (e.g. the hopelessness theory of depression). Some theorists posit that the observed relationship between depression and IU may be due to the relationship between depression and anxiety and the relationship between anxiety and IU. The present study sought to elucidate the unique relationships among trait anxiety, depression, and IU in undergraduate (N = 554) and clinical (generalized anxiety disorder; N = 43) samples. Findings suggest that IU may play a larger role in anxiety than depression, although some evidence indicates that inhibitory IU and depression may have a modest but independent relationship.     

Depression and somatic symptoms in Japanese and American college students: Negative mood regulation expectancies as a personality correlate

This study clarified contradictory findings regarding whether depression and somatic symptoms are associated more strongly with each other in non‐Western countries than in Western countries, by examining the relationships of the two variables with negative mood regulation expectancies (NMRE). NMRE are beliefs about one's ability to improve one's negative moods. Participants were 155 Japanese and 176 American undergraduates. They completed self‐report measures of NMRE, coping, depression and somatic symptoms. Results showed that depression significantly correlated with somatic symptoms for both men and women in both countries, and there was no cultural difference in the relationship between depression and somatic symptoms. The relationships of depression and somatic symptoms with NMRE did not differ between cultures. NMRE explained variance in depression in both countries but variance in somatic symptoms only for women in both countries. The relationship of NMRE with depression and somatic symptoms paralleled that between depression and somatic symptoms for both cultures. These results were consistent with the previous literature that found no difference between cultures. Results support the cross‐cultural validity of measuring NMRE in the context of coping and distress.     

Does quality of sleep mediate the effect of depression on hopelessness?

The objectives of the study were to evaluate the relationship between sleep quality, depression, and hopelessness in advanced cancer patients and whether sleep quality mediated the effect of depression on hopelessness. The final sample consisted of 102 advanced cancer patients under palliative treatment. Patients completed the Greek Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, a sleep quality instrument, the Greek Beck Depression Inventory for measuring depression, and finally the Beck Hopelessness Scale. Patients' performance status was assessed by their overall physical functioning, as defined by the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Depression was highly associated with hopelessness (r = .52, p<.001). Statistically significant associations were found between sleep quality with hopelessness (r = .37, p<.001), as well as with depression (r = .36, p<.001). Mediation analyses indicated that depression influenced hopelessness directly as well as indirectly by its effect on sleep quality. About 14.58% of the variation in hopelessness was explained by depression; 4% of the variance in hopelessness explained by depression was accounted for by the mediation pathway indicating that sleep quality mediated the relationship between depression and hopelessness. Similarly, in the reverse mediation analysis, depression mediated the relationship between sleep quality and hopelessness; 43% of the variation in hopelessness was explained by sleep quality. In conclusion, some of the effect of depression on hopelessness was mediated by sleep quality, but depression had a direct effect on hopelessness as well. Additionally, some of the effect of sleep quality on hopelessness was mediated by depression. The current findings are important because improving sleep quality by treating depression may contribute to decreased hopelessness scores and vice versa: Treating depression by improving sleep quality may also contribute to lower hopelessness scores.     

Affective, behavioral, and cognitive functioning in adolescents with multiple suicide attempts

The purpose of this study was to examine affective, behavioral, and cognitive functioning in adolescents with multiple suicide attempts. Forty-seven adolescents with a history of multiple suicide attempts (MA) were compared to 74 single suicide attempters (SA) on psychiatric diagnosis, depressive symptoms, affect regulation, self-mutilation, alcohol use, and hopelessness. Results revealed that the MA group was more likely to be diagnosed with a mood disorder, and reported more severe depressive symptoms and anger, in comparison to the SA group. Behaviorally, the MA group had higher rates of disruptive behavior disorders and higher levels of affect dysregulation and serious self-mutilation than the SA group. Further, greater levels of hopelessness were reported by the MA than the SA group. After controlling for a mood disorder diagnosis, only differences in anger, affect dysregulation, and serious self-mutilation remained significant. Overall, results suggest that treatment with adolescent suicide attempters might specifically target anger and affect dysregulation to reduce risk for future suicidal behavior.     

Hopelessness,Depression, Suicidal Ideation,and Clinical Diagnosis of Depression

The relevance of a clinical diagnosis of depression for explaining the discrepant relationships of hopelessness and depression with suicidal ideation was studied. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Hopelessness Scale (BHS), and the Scale for Suicide Ideation (SSI) were administered to 1,306 (72.8%) patients with at least one DSM-III-R mood disorder and 488 (27.3%) patients without any mood disorders. A multiple regression analysis was conducted, and hopelessness was 1.3 times more important than depression was for explaining suicidal ideation. The interactions of the BDI and BHS with diagnostic group were not significant.