Adolescents’ Perceptions of Masculine and Feminine Values in Sport and Physical Education: A Study of Gender Differences

In present study we investigated possible gender differences in how 357 secondary-school students valued the importance of masculine and feminine characteristics within sport and physical education and how their ratings of values were related to their participation in gendered sport. The results indicated that boys rated appearance strength, sports competence, endurance strength, and masculinity as significantly more important than did girls. Girls rated appearance good looking face, appearance slender, and femininity as significantly more important than did boys. Further, more boys participated in traditionally masculine sports, whereas girls to a greater extent participated in traditionally feminine sports. A discriminant function analysis separated the masculine sport group from the feminine sport group, which suggests that higher scores on the masculine function were indicative of lower value on appearance slender and flexibility, accompanied by higher value on appearance strength and masculinity. For the feminine sport group, this pattern was the opposite.     

The role of brothers and sisters in the gender development of preschool children

The study examined whether the sex of older siblings influences the gender role development of younger brothers and sisters of age 3 years. Data on the Pre-School Activities Inventory, a measure of gender role behavior that discriminates within as well as between the sexes, were obtained in a general population study for 527 girls and 582 boys with an older sister, 500 girls and 561 boys with an older brother, and 1665 singleton girls and 1707 singleton boys. It was found that boys with older brothers and girls with older sisters were more sex-typed than same-sex singletons who, in turn, were more sex-typed than children with other-sex siblings. Having an older brother was associated with more masculine and less feminine behavior in both boys and girls, whereas boys with older sisters were more feminine but not less masculine and girls with older sisters were less masculine but not more feminine.     

GENDER STEREOTYPES AND WOMEN'S REPORTS OF LIKING AND ABILITY IN TRADITIONALLY MASCULINE AND FEMININE OCCUPATIONS

Gender stereotypes were examined for their causal influence on women's reported liking for and perceived ability to succeed in traditionally masculine and feminine occupations. One hundred twenty-one women were assigned to either a gender-stereotype activation or filler task and then completed measures of liking for, and perceived ability to succeed in, traditionally masculine and feminine occupations. Strongly gender-identified women showed significantly greater liking for feminine occupations in the stereotype-activation condition than in the control condition. However, more weakly identified women did not show the same effect. In contrast, women weak in gender identification reported an increase in perceived ability for feminine occupations when stereotypes were activated than in the control condition. Activating gender stereotypes did not shift reported liking or perceived ability in traditionally masculine occupations. These results demonstrate the theoretical and practical importance of gender stereotypes on women's career-related attitudes.     

The Effect of Target Age on the Activation of Gender Stereotypes

Two studies investigated the impact of target age on gender stereotyping. Study 1 examined whether the attribution of gender-stereotypical traits to unfamiliar individuals varies as a function of target and participant age. Adults and children (ages 8–10 years) viewed photographs of men, women, boys, and girls and rated each pictured individual on the possession of masculine, feminine, and gender-neutral personality traits. Both adult and child participants showed evidence of gender stereotyping. The strongest level of stereotyping was seen when adults rated child targets. Adults were particularly unwilling to attribute feminine characteristics to males. Finally, participants of both ages viewed adult targets (regardless of sex) as more masculine and less feminine than child targets. Study 2 examined the generality of the latter finding. Adult participants rated traditionally masculine and feminine traits on the likelihood of possession by adults versus children. Confirming the results of Study 1, feminine traits were believed to be more childlike/less adultlike than were masculine traits. Implications for gender-role development, socialization, and measurement are discussed.     

Alternating Between Masculine and Feminine Pronouns: Does Essay Topic Affect Readers' Perceptions?

Authors are routinely advised to avoid using masculine pronouns to refer to both men and women. Some style guides recommend alternating between masculine and feminine pronouns instead. Unfortunately, previous research with gender-neutral text indicates that readers perceive alternating pronouns to be biased in favor of women. We tested readers' perceptions of alternating pronouns in an essay on a traditionally feminine topic, on a traditionally masculine topic, and on a gender-neutral topic. There were four versions of each essay. One version alternated between masculine and feminine pronouns, a second version used paired masculine and feminine pronouns throughout the passage (e.g., ‘he or she’), and the remaining two versions used exclusively masculine pronouns or feminine pronouns. Readers overestimated the frequency of feminine pronouns in alternating text except when they occurred in an essay on a traditionally feminine topic. Readers also thought alternating pronouns were gender-biased and low in overall quality.     

Encoding processes and sex-role preferences

Seven- and 10-year-old children were tested on memory and sex-role preference tasks. The memory task was the Wickens release from proactive inhibition paradigm in which short-term recall of words is tested on successive trials. On Trials 1–4, words were selected from one of two categories, either words with masculine or feminine connotations. On Trial 5, words were drawn from the second category. Sex-role preference was assessed by asking the child to select his favorite pictures from an array that included masculine and feminine items. Recall by boys at both ages increased following a shift between words with masculine or feminine connotations, suggesting that this dimension of a word's meaning was encoded in memory. Recall by girls who selected a feminine item as their favorite on the sex-role preference task increased following a category shift; recall by girls who chose a masculine item did not increase. These results are discussed in relation to previous research on the attributes of encoding in children's memory.     

How can we enhance girls’ interest in scientific topics?

Background. Girls are considerably less interested in scientific subjects than boys. One reason may be that scientific subjects are considered to be genuinely masculine. Thus, being interested in science may threaten the self‐perception of girls as well as the femininity of their self‐image. Aims. If scientific topics that are considered to be stereotypically feminine were chosen, however, this potential threat might be overcome which, in turn, might lead to an increase in girls’ interest in science. This hypothesis was empirically tested by means of two studies. Sample. Participants were 294 (Study 1) and 190 (Study 2) Grade 8 to Grade 9 students. Method. Gender differences in students’ interest in masculine and feminine topics were investigated for a range of scientific concepts (Study 1) as well as for a given scientific concept (Study 2) for four scientific subjects (i.e., biology, physics, information technology, and statistics), respectively. Results. Both studies indicated that the mean level of girls’ scientific interest was higher when scientific concepts were presented in the context of feminine topics and boys’ level of scientific interests was higher when scientific concepts were presented in the context of masculine topics. Conclusion. Girls’ interest in science could be substantially increased by presenting scientific concepts in the context of feminine topics. Gender differences as well as individual differences in the level of interest in scientific topics may be taken into account by creating learning environments in which students could select the context in which a certain scientific concept is embedded.     

The Impact of Social Roles on Stereotypes of Gay Men

Past research demonstrates that heterosexuals perceive gay men to have traditionally feminine characteristics. Guided by Social Role Theory (Eagly, 1987), we predicted that this stereotype would differ depending on a gay man’s specific social role. To test this idea, participants rated five gay targets (father, single man, hairdresser, truck driver, typical gay man) on stereotypically masculine (e.g., ambitious, leader) and feminine (e.g., affectionate, sensitive) personality attributes. Gay men in traditionally masculine roles (truck driver, single man) were rated as less feminine than gay men in traditionally feminine roles (hairdresser, parent). In addition, gay men in feminine roles were perceived as more similar to the typical gay man than were those in masculine roles. Suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Gay Stereotypes: The Use of Sexual Orientation as a Cue for Gender-Related Attributes

This study investigated whether gay men and lesbians are assumed to have attributes stereotypically associated with the other gender. Participants were 110 male and female undergraduates from a private, Midwestern, U.S. university. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions (i.e., gay male, lesbian, heterosexual female, heterosexual male) and rated their given target on possession of traditionally masculine and feminine occupational interests, activities, and traits. Results revealed that, despite some changes in the status of gay men and lesbians in society, stereotypes regarding sexual orientation were similar to those seen in studies conducted 20 years ago. Specifically, gay males were viewed as less masculine/more feminine than heterosexual males, and lesbians were viewed as more masculine/less feminine than heterosexual females.     

Gender typing of game choices and qualities of boys' play behavior

Relationships between gender choices and both movement patterns and social behavior were studied in first- and second-grade boys. Three-child, structured play groups were each composed of a boy whose mother saw him as high masculine in play preference on the Games Inventory, one seen as average, and one low masculine. Behaviors rated from videotapes included gender presentation variables, (e.g., leg separation), indicators of dominance and personal comfort (e.g.,range of movements), and indicators of social skill and peer response (e.g., interaction initiations). The low masculine boys were found to be the most feminine in their gender presentation, least dominant and aggressive, and the least socially successful of the boys. The greatest difference was between the low and the high masculine boys. The average masculine boys' scores were generally intermediate,but more similar to the low masculine boys on some variables and more similar to the high masculine boys on others. These conclusions apply to a group interaction play task, but not to an initial noninteractive play task. A secondary study in which girls played with low and average masculine boys is also reported. Here it was found that low masculine boys were generally intermediate between average boys and girls on gender presentation and dominance variables, but lowest of the groups on social interaction variables. The authors appreciate the comments of Peter Bentler and Spencer Thompson on a draft of this paper, the assistance of Laura McCain in running subjects and scoring tapes, and the expertise of Shu-Yeng Wong for computer programming.     

Social dominance and play patterns among preschoolers: Gender comparisons

Gender differences in dominance and play among preschoolers were examined. Forty-eight children in girl-girl or girl-boy dyads engaged in masculine and feminine stereotyped activities. Girl-girl dyads displayed more cooperative play than girl-boy dyads. Adventure themes predominated in boys during both activities but in girls only during the masculine activity. Boys had higher functional play compared to girls while engaged in the feminine activity, and lower constructive play overall. Girls engaged in more dramatic play during the feminine activity whereas boys engaged in more dramatic play during the masculine activity. There was a trend for boys to refuse to follow the leads of girls during the masculine activity. Implications and interventions in play are discussed. The authors wish to express appreciation to the directors of the preschools that participated in this study. We would also like to thank Sheri Wilhite for her help in the coding of the data.     

Gender-Typed Toy Play in Dizygotic Twin Pairs: A Test of Hormone Transfer Theory

Hormone transfer theory predicts thatopposite-sex twins will be affected in utero by thehormones their twins produce. This study examines theprediction that opposite-sex dizygotic twins should showless stereotyped toy play than same-sex dizygotictwins should show less stereotyped toy play thansame-sex dizygotic twins as a result of exposure toopposite-sex hormones in utero. Participants in thisstudy included 32 male-female dizygotic twin pairs,27 female-female pairs, and 24 male-male pairs. Allranged in age from 7 to 12 years and were primarilyCaucasian and middle class. Differences in the amount of time children played with feminine,masculine, and neutral stereotyped toys during free playwere examined. Results did not support hormone transfertheory. Girls played with feminine toys more than boys and boys played with masculine toys morethan girls, but there were no significant differencesbetween children with opposite- vs. same-sextwins.     

Truck Driver or Nurse? The Impact of Gender Roles and Occupational Status on Children’s Occupational Preferences

Three experiments examined how US children perceive occupational status and gender roles. In Experiment 1, 107 6-to-12-year-olds rated the status and gender roles of 54 occupations. Feminine occupations were underrepresented among the perceived high status jobs. In Experiment 2, 28 6-to-8-year-olds, and in Experiment 3, 36 9-to-12-year-olds, reported their preferences for equally high status masculine and feminine occupations and low status masculine and feminine occupations. In both experiments, girls preferred feminine to masculine occupations and status only affected preferences for masculine occupations. The younger boys’ preferences were based on both variables, whereas older boys’ preferences were based on status. These findings imply that occupational status may influence boys’ vocational preferences more than pressure to conform to masculine gender roles.     

Peer socialization of masculinity and femininity: Differential effects of overt and relational forms of peer victimization

Although peer influence has been implicated in recent theories of gender socialization, few investigations have tested whether children's gendered behaviours change over time as a function of peer experiences and whether some peer experiences may exacerbate, rather than dampen, gender non‐conformity. Accordingly, the current study examined prospective links between specific forms of peer victimization and children's adherence to traditional gender roles. Peer reports of victimization and self‐reports of engagement in stereotypically masculine and feminine activities were collected from 199 children (104 girls; 95 boys) in the Fall and Spring of their fifth‐grade year. Multi‐group path analysis was used to explore the relations between forms of victimization and masculinity and femininity for girls and boys. For girls, peer victimization predicted withdrawal from both feminine and masculine behaviours. For boys, physical, verbal, and general victimization predicted lower levels of feminine behaviours, but social exclusion forecast heightened engagement in traditionally feminine activities. These findings underscore how social experiences can amplify, as well as reduce, gender non‐conformity.     

Age and Gender Differences in Children's Halloween Costumes

Based on data reported by Serbin and Sprafkin (1986), we predicted that the Halloween costumes of first and second graders would be less gender stereotyped than those of preschoolers and children in kindergarten. Children from one public elementary school and two preschools (N = 178) were individually interviewed on Halloween. Children were asked which character they were, who they wanted to be next year, and their age. The resulting 113 different costumes were then rated by college students for degree of masculinity, femininity, and scariness. In addition to main effects of gender and grade, two of four predicted interactions were significant. Older boys tended to prefer less masculine and more feminine costumes than younger boys, and older girls tended to prefer more masculine and less feminine costumes than younger girls.     

The influence of parents and family context on children's involvement in household tasks

To determine the relative impact of a number of family variables on children's performance of gender-typed household tasks, this study took account of the gender of the child, the gender of a sibling within the same age range (8–14 years), whether a first or second child and three parental variables: the degree of encouragement given to perform masculineand femininetasks, parental involvement in the same tasks, and parents' general egalitarianism. The sample consisted of 191 white, mainly Anglo Australian two-parent families, with the two oldest children in a boy—boy, girl—girl, boy—girl, or girl—boy sequence. To check on the robustness of effects, measures were taken on two occasions, on average 16 months apart. Among the family context variables, the gender of the child was the strongest contributing variable, with girls doing more feminine tasks than boys and boys doing more masculine tasks than girls. There was limited support for the proposition that first children do more housework than second children of the same gender, while the results for gender of sibling were small and inconsistent. Among the parental variables, encouragement had strong positive effects for feminine tasks (i.e., more encouragement by parents corresponded to more involvement by children). In contrast, parental involvement in the same tasks (modeling) and parental egalitarianism predicted only the performance of masculine tasks, and the direction of the effects was mostly negative (e.g., the more a father was involved in masculine tasks, the less a child did of those tasks). The results point to involvement in gender-typed activities being influenced by multiple factors, with parental encouragement and gender of child being most prominent among these. They also point to the value of sampling on more than one occasion and of considering separately the performance of feminine and masculine tasks. This research was financially supported by the Australian Research Council. We are happy to acknowledge that support, together with the essential assistance of the Department of Education and the many parents and children who participated in the study.     

Sexism and beautyism in women's evaluations of peer performance

The purpose of this study was to investigate independent and interactive effects of physical attractiveness (PA), sex, and task sex-typing on performance evaluations. Subjects were 216 college women who read poorquality essays written on masculine, feminine, or neutral topics. Essays supposedly were written by a male or a female student who was either attractive, unattractive, or physically unidentified. Results indicated that PA enhanced evaluations of both male and female essayists, except for the predicted effect that female attractiveness is less beneficial for masculine than feminine task performances. Women did not evaluate the sexes differently, and sexism was largely restricted to the interactive effects of PA. PA stereotypes also affected causal attributions of performers' outcomes in a manner consistent with attribution theory. These data are considered in the context of the existing literature and the directions for further research on sexism and beautyism.     

Gender‐Related Psychological Characteristics and Situational Determinants of Psychophysiological Stress Reactivity1

This study examined the influence of gender‐related psychological characteristics and situational demands on physiological and affective responses to stressful tasks. While physiological and affective responses were monitored, 44 medical students (26 men, 18 women) performed an emotion‐oriented speech task and an action‐oriented speech in a counterbalanced design. Conventionally masculine instrumental and feminine expressive characteristics were measured using the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Systolic blood pressure and respiratory reactions to the action‐oriented task were positively associated with expressivity. Expressivity was also associated with greater subjective tension during the action‐oriented task, and with perceptions of greater task difficulty. The results are consistent with the notion that physiological and affective stress reactions in men and women are determined in part by traditionally gender‐related psychological characteristics, with greater reactions when the situational demands are not congruent with preferred modes of behavior.