The calculation of sums of squares for interactions in the analysis of variance

A method is described for the calculation of the sum of squares for a second-order interaction. It is then shown that the method is general and can be used for the calculation of the sum of squares for any higher-order interaction.     

A test of inclusion which allows for errors of measurement

A test which allows for errors of measurement is derived for the hypothesis that all the members of a population who possess a certain skill are a sub-set of the members who possess another skill. Formulae are given for one particular case when two questions are used for each skill, and for when three questions are used for each skill. An illustrative example is given for the two-question case. The authors are indebted to M. L. Turner for his assistance in the initial stages of development of the test.     

Determinants of expectancy of examination results

Abstract.— In a group of undergraduate psychology students, expectancy of examination results was found to be positively related to experienced effort (work put out for the exam) and estimated importance of success for future career, both for men and women. The assumptions that men consider success to be more important for self esteem and future career than women do, and that women consider success to be more important in connection with social acceptance than men do, were not supported. Women were found to have a lower expectancy level than men in spite of there being no sex difference as to experienced effort. It was suggested that women perceive their ability to be lower than men do. In a group of persons who were homogenous as to the importance of success for future career, incentive value of success for social acceptance correlated positively with expectancy for men, but negatively for women.     

Adults' evaluations of a child as a function of sex of adult and sex of child.

Male and female college students watched a videotape of a 3-year-old child who was identified as either a girl or a boy; they then rated the child on a number of personaltiy and ability measures. Males' ratings on many of the measures were more favorable for the "girl" than for the "boy," whereas females' ratings were more favorable for the "boy" than for the "girl." In addition to these interactions, there was also a main effect for sex of subject, with females rating the child more favorably than males.     

诚信内在结构解析

对诚信的内在结构可有多种解析。从所属领域角度,诚信可以被分为心诚、言诚、行诚三个层面。这三个层面相互依赖、相互作用：心诚是言诚和行诚的内在依据,言诚和行诚是心诚的必要外化,而言诚和行诚则相互促进。从所涉对象角度,诚信可以被分为诚己、诚人、诚群三个维度。这三个维度彼此相关、层层推进：诚己是诚人和诚群的必要前提,诚人是诚己的必然延伸和必要确证,而诚群则是诚人的合乎逻辑的扩展。     

Use of three depression scales for evaluation of pretreatment severity and of improvement after treatment

We investigated the Castilian Spanish versions of three scales (the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, the Carroll Rating Scale for Depression, and the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale) as to their suitability for classifying major depression patients in four levels of severity prior to treatment with tricyclic antidepressants, and also as to their suitability for classifying these patients in four improvement levels when administered posttreatment. Although the scales behaved quite similarly, each was most efficient at the task for which it had been designed, i.e., severity rating for the Hamilton and Carroll scales, improvement rating for the Montgomery-Asberg scale.     

An examination of the right-hemisphere hypothesis of the lateralization of emotion

The Right-Hemisphere Hypothesis posits that emotional stimuli are perceived more efficiently by the right hemisphere than by the left hemisphere. The current research examines this hypothesis by examining hemispheric asymmetries for the conscious and unconscious perception of emotional stimuli. Negative, positive, and neutral words were presented for 17 ms to one visual field or the other. Conscious perception was measured by using a subjective report-of-awareness measure reported by participants on each trial. Unconscious perception was measured using an "exclusion task," a form of word-stem-completion task. Consistent with previous research, there was a right-hemisphere advantage for the conscious perception of negative information. As in previous studies, this advantage for conscious perception occurred at the expense of unconscious perception. Specifically, there was a right-hemisphere inferiority for the unconscious perception of negative information. Contrary to the predictions of the Right-Hemisphere Hypothesis, there were no hemispheric asymmetries for the perception of positive emotional information, thus suggesting that the Right-Hemisphere Hypothesis may not be applicable to all behavioral studies.     

Robustness of the two-dimensional structure of recognition of facial expression: evidence under different intensities of emotionality.

Many studies have indicated that recognition of facial expression is geometrically represented in terms of two underlying bipolar dimensions, pleasure-displeasure and the intensity of arousal. A psychological space defined by these two dimensions has been found under particular conditions using prototype faces: however, the question arises whether this two-dimensional psychological space is also an accurate representation for faces with lower emotional intensity. To test this we prepared four different conditions of emotional intensity (100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% of emotionality) for six basic facial expressions using morphing. Participants (29 for the 100%, 30 for 75%, 35 for 50%, and 34 for the 25% condition) in each condition rated the facial stimuli on a 6-point scale of "not at all" and "very much so". Multidimensional scaling for each condition clearly indicated a two-dimensional representation and multiple correlations showed significant similarity across conditions (p < .001). This shows that the two-dimensional representation of recognition of facial expression is robust.     

A method of estimating accuracy of test scoring

When errors of test scoring obey a Poisson frequency law (theoretical considerations suggest that they do), the method described may be used for finding the upper fiducial limits of scoring errors per paper. A criterion is suggested for establishing tolerance limits on scoring errors, and a method is given (1) for finding the probability of being wrong in the statement that the tolerance limit is being met for a given size sample or (2) for finding the size of sample that will make this probability not greater than some fixed value.     

Effect of depth of processing on recognition memory for normal and inverted photographs of faces

40 undergraduates categorized photographs of faces on the basis of sex or liking and then attempted to recognize them in normal or inverted orientations. For photographs which were normally oriented, accuracy and confidence were greater for pictures initially categorized for liking than for pictures initially categorized for sex. However, for inverted photographs, accuracy and confidence scores did not differ as a function of initial judgement, although they were generally poorer for the inverted than normal faces. Finally, subjects more often correctly recalled the initial category for normal than for inverted photographs, although both levels were close to chance. These findings are interpreted as being more consistent with a semantic than a feature model of facial representation.     

The Role of Expectations of Future Performance

The present study examined the relationships among gender, causal attributions for success, and the distribution of organizational rewards. In this study, which attempted to control for methodological deficiencies of previous research, male and female undergraduates reviewed the performance of four stimulus managers: three men and one woman. Participants were asked to make causal attributions for the stimulus manager's success, and to rate how effectively they believed the manager would perform in the future. They were then asked to nominate a manager for an organizational reward. Bias against the female manager was exhibited by females only. Results indicated that lower expectations of future performance for the female manager significantly predicted the bias against her in reward allocation.     

Bradley-Terry-Luce scale of taste qualities of champagne]

In a paired comparison experiment 783 subjects judged five different brands of champagne (three normal and two alcohol-reduced). Each subject judged only one single pair with respect to which one tasted more fizzy ("spritziger"), dry ("trockener"), prickling ("prickelnder") and better ("besser"). Three extended versions of the Bradley-Terry-Luce model are discussed and used to assess scale values for the criteria as well as for order effects. The results can be summarized into three points: (1) Goodness-of-fit for the simple BTL-model is satisfactory for all criteria--except for the judgement "tastes better than". (2) Using four graded response categories instead of dichotomous responses decreases goodness-of-fit considerably. (3) Alcohol-reduced brands are less "dry", but are quite within the range of the other brands with respect to the remaining criteria. It is argued that the particular scaling method used is especially useful for deciding which criteria are appropriate for measurement on a one-dimensional scale and which are not.     

A Comparison of the Neurotic Tendencies of Students of Different Racial Ancestry in Hawaii

ABSTRACT

Research has shown that altruism plays a role in mate choice, and recent studies suggest it is most important for long-term relationships. This study examined whether altruism is preferred for long-term relationships for both males and females. This was achieved using two versions of the Mate Preferences Towards Altruistic Traits (MPAT) scale that assessed preferences for short-term and long-term relationships. Both males and females significantly preferred altruistic mates for long-term relationships, and the size of this preference was greater than for other traits in mate choice. This provides support for previous findings that state that altruism conveys information about an individual's partner/parenting qualities or good character.     

Prediction of facial displays from knowledge of norms of emotional expressiveness

A study was conducted to examine the accuracy of prediction of facial expressiveness from knowledge of the norms of expressiveness in same-sex and mixed-sex social interactions. Men and women subjects were videotaped while they viewed emotionally loaded stimulus slides and rated their responses to them. The edited videotapes were shown to judges who attempted to identify the emotion reported by each viewer for each slide. A separate group of subjects was asked to rate how acceptable or appropriate it is for a man or a woman to express each target emotion under the conditions of the slide-viewing study. The accuracy of emotion identification data correlated highly with acceptability ratings across emotions and sex pairings, although examined more closely, the data show this predictability only for same-sex pairings. Alternative explanations for these results in terms of display rules and the social demands of interactions are discussed.The authors wish to thank Alan Fridlund for helpful comments on a previous version of this paper.     

A comparison of different measures of response strength in the study of stimulus generalization

In Experiment 1, three pigeons were given variable interval training to peck at a light of 550 mmu and then were tested for stimulus generalization in extinction to several different wavelengths. A gradient was obtained for latency of the first response in each test period, for the number of test periods in which responding occurred, and for the measure of response rate. When the response rate gradient was corrected for differences in initial latency and in number of responded trials, the change was minimal, indicating that the major component of response rate as usually measured is rate of responding having once responded. In Experiment 2, three other pigeons were trained to respond to 550 mmu (for variable interval reinforcement) and not to 570 mmu (extinguished). Analysis of generalization gradients dictated the same conclusion as that reported for generalization following single stimulus training.     

Estimating the imputed social cost of errors of measurement

If a loss function is available specifying the social cost of an error of measurement in the score on a unidimensional test, an asymptotic method, based on item response theory, is developed for optimal test design for a specified target population of examinees. Since in the real world such loss functions are not available, it is more useful to reverse this process; thus a method is developed for finding the loss function for which a given test is an optimally designed test for the target population. An illustrative application is presented for one operational test.This work was supported in part by contract N00014-80-C-0402, project designation NR 150-453 between the Office of Naval Research and Educational Testing Service. Reproduction in whole or in part is permitted for any purpose of the United States Government.     

Processing of emotional visual scenes outside the focus of spatial attention: The role of eccentricity

Pairs of emotional-neutral pictures were presented parafoveally or peripherally (i.e., 2.2° or 5.2° away from fixation) as primes for 150 ms, followed by a recognition probe. The probe was either identical or related in semantic content to one of the primes. Physical features (colour, size, and spatial orientation) were always different for the primes and the probe. Results indicated that, for parafoveal displays, hit rate and sensitivity (A′) were higher for the identical emotional probes than for the identical neutral probes; in contrast, for peripheral displays there were more false alarms for the related emotional probes than for the related neutral probes. It is concluded that processing of specific semantic content is more likely to be obtained from emotional than from neutral scenes in parafoveal vision, whereas an overall, vague impression is extracted in peripheral vision.     

A preliminary evaluation of causal models of male and female acquisition of pilot skills

Based on a previous study, a causal model of acquisition of pilot job knowledge and flying skills was tested on separate samples of male and female students. Causal model parameters were estimated separately for each sample and, due to the small sample size for women, no between-groups statistical tests were conducted. The results are viewed as tentative because of the small sample of female students; however, the path coefficient parameter estimates are still useful. The model showed a direct influence of general cognitive ability (g) on the acquisition of job knowledge and an indirect influence on the acquisition of flying skills. The direct and indirect influence of cognitive ability on flying skills was a little stronger for women than for men. Additionally, the path between prior job knowledge (JKp) and flying performance was somewhat stronger for women than for men. Consistent with previous findings, the influence of early flying skills on later flying skills was very strong. No argument for a sex-separated training syllabus is supported.     

The mortality of psychoanalysts

The mortality rate for male psychoanalysts was compared to that for the general white male population; for male physicians; and for male psychiatrists and neurologists. For psychoanalysts the rate was found to be significantly lower than for any of the other three groups. Several possible explanations for this low mortality rate are considered. Two major factors may be the careful screening of candidates for psychoanalytic training and their personal analysis. Possible methods of controlling for these factors are suggested.