Genetic associations with personality and mental toughness profiles of English academy football players: An exploratory study

Psychological characteristics influence the performance of youth football players and are significant predictors of development and success at adulthood. Although genetic factors may explain a considerable portion of inter-individual differences in psychological traits, psychogenetic research in football is scarce. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine the association of ten single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with personality and mental toughness profiles of academy football players. Seventy-three male under-12 to under-18 football players from a Category 3 English academy were genotyped for ten SNPs. Personality and mental toughness were assessed using a 50-item IPIP Big Five personality traits questionnaire and the Mental Toughness Index, respectively. Simple linear regression was used to analyse individual SNP associations with personality dimensions and mental toughness, whereas both unweighted and weighted total genotype scores (TGSs; TWGSs) were computed to measure the combined influence of all SNPs. There was a significant association between DRD3 (rs167771) and agreeableness (p = .043), where A/A homozygotes scored higher than G allele carriers. TGSs and/or TWGSs were significantly correlated with mental toughness and each personality dimension except openness, explaining between 3 and 17% of the variance. The results of this study suggest psychological characteristics of youth football players are partly determined by genetic factors.     

The relationship between psychological skills usage and competitive anxiety responses

Objectives. To investigate equivocal findings within the literature addressing the relationship between competitive anxiety responses and psychological skills. Intensity (i.e. level) and direction (i.e. interpretation of intensity as facilitative or debilitative) dimensions of competitive state anxiety and self-confidence were examined in performers with different levels of psychological skills usage.Design. Cross-sectional design assessing psychological constructs during competition. The independent variable was psychological skill usage (“high” and “low” groups) and dependent variables were competitive anxiety responses.Method. Non-elite competitive swimmers (N=114) completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) which examined both intensity and direction dimensions prior to racing. Following the event these participants completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) which measures psychological skills usage. Based on the TOPS scores the swimmers were dichotomised using post-hoc median-split into high and low usage groups for certain psychological skills.Results. MANOVAs revealed significant differences in the CSAI-2 scores between the high and low usage groups for the skills of relaxation, self-talk and imagery. ANOVAs indicated significant differences on all CSAI-2 subscales for relaxation groups, and differences on cognitive intensity, somatic direction and self-confidence for self-talk groups, and self-confidence for the imagery groups.Conclusions. Non-elite swimmers, in contrast with previous research examining elite swimmers (Hanton, S. & Jones, G. (1999a). The acquisition and development of cognitive skills and strategies: I. Making the butterflies fly in formation. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 1–21), primarily use relaxation strategies to reduce and interpret their anxiety intensity levels as facilitative, relying minimally on other psychological skills.     

Self-efficacy,mental models and team adaptation: A first approach on football and futsal refereeing

ObjectiveWithin the football and futsal refereeing context, even though referees work within teams, there is very little research considering the implications of team dynamics. In response, this study starts to address this gap in the literature by investigating the moderating effect of mental models on the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and perceptions of team adaptation within the exciting context of professional and national football and futsal refereeing.DesignWe obtained online questionnaires from 339 active football and futsal referees within the National and Professional league at two distinct points (April and May) within the football season.ResultsSelf-efficacy beliefs were positively associated with perceptions of team adaptation (only for football referees). Mental models were positively associated with team adaptation. Likewise, the moderation between mental models and self-efficacy beliefs was positively associated with perceptions of team adaptation. However, such an effect was only significant at the futsal referees’ level.ConclusionThis study emphasises the importance of mental models for team adaptation and the importance of self-efficacy beliefs in predicting perceptions of team adaptation. We hope that this study represents the first step in a greater appreciation of the salience of team dynamics and their impact on football and futsal referees’ performance and that future research can build upon our work.     

Short-term effect of competition rule changes on collective effectiveness and self-efficacy in youth football players

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to assess the short effect of the modification of the players' number, field size, and goal size on the levels of physical self-efficacy, football-specific self-efficacy, and collective self-efficacy in male youth football players.DesignA quasi-experimental study of type A-B-A (three tournaments) was implemented to measure the effect of rule changes on the player's self-efficacy. The independent variable of the study was the competition format: official rules of the Royal Spanish Football Federation for U-12 vs. modified rules (size of the playing field (58 × 38 m. vs. 38 × 20 m); number of players per team on the field (8-a-side vs. 5-a-side); and goal size (6 × 2 m. vs. 3 × 2 m.). The dependent variables were physical self-efficacy, football-specific self-efficacy, and collective self-efficacy. The technical tactical players' actions of clearances, passes, and shots were measured as cofounding variables to assess the implication of the modification of the rules on the game.MethodThe sample analyzed was made up of four U-12 male football teams (n = 48), which played a total of 24 matches in three tournaments. In tournaments one and three, teams played with the official 8v8 football rules. In tournament two, teams played with the modified rules.ResultsThere was a significant increase in the football-specific self-efficacy at the third tournament. The experimental rules did not change players' general physical self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy. The experimental rules involved the realization of more defensive actions (clearances) and offensive actions (passes and shots) by players. The results showed that both competition rules involved similar values of self-efficacy.ConclusionsThese results show that the short-effect of participation in modified competitions maintains the values of football-specific self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy. Future studies should consider the interaction of self-efficacy with other psychological variables, such as self-esteem, cooperation motivation, etc., and other aspects of the game, such as technic-tactical, physiological, health, etc.     

Terror management and the vicissitudes of sports fan affiliation: the effects of mortality salience on optimism and fan identification

The present research examined the hypothesis derived from terror management theory that identifications with sports teams shield against the potential consequences of awareness of death. Experiment 1 demonstrated that Dutch participants who were reminded of their death expressed greater optimism about the results of the national soccer team compared to a control condition. Experiment 2 conceptually replicated this finding with American participants and college sports teams. In addition, Experiment 2 tested the hypothesis that success of a team is a prerequisite for sports fan affiliation to function as a buffer against death concerns. Before the college football season began, participants who were reminded about death expressed greater relative preference for a more salient, but less successful college football team over a national college champion basketball team compared to control participants. However, after the football team lost its first game of the season, participants who were reminded about death indicated greater relative preference for the successful basketball team. Results are discussed with regard to the psychological function of social identifications. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and correlates of sport-specific cognitive and somatic trait anxiety: The sport anxiety scale

Abstract

Previous research indicates the viability of a distinction between cognitive and somatic components of the anxiety response, and multidimensional anxiety scales have proven useful in relating cognitive and somatic anxiety to behavioral outcomes. This article describes the development and validation of a sport-specific measure of cognitive and somatic trait anxiety. The Sport Anxiety Scale measures individual differences in Somatic Anxiety and in two classes of cognitive anxiety, Worry and Concentration Disruption. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported these dimensions in several different athlete samples. Psychometric properties of the Sport Anxiety Scale are described, as are its relations with other psychological measures and with precompetition affective state measures. In the last of the four studies reported, scores on the Concentration Disruption scale were negatively related to the performance of college football players over the course of a season. The studies suggest that the Sport Anxiety Scale may be useful in defining sport-related anxiety more sharply and assessing how the cognitive and somatic anxiety components relate to performance and other outcome measures in sport.     

How perceiving additional targets modifies teams’ tactical behavior during football small-sided games

This study aimed to measure how the change on targets information modifies teams’ tactical behavior during football small-sided games. 20 male senior professional players divided in 4 teams of 5 players participated in the study. Each team played two small-sided games, one with 2 official targets with goalkeeper and one with 6 small targets. Positional data of each player were recorded using a 15 Hz portable GPS. The distance between the centers of gravity (CG) of both team, the stretch index and the relative stretch index were measured and differences accessed via standardized differences, coefficient intervals and meta-analysis procedures. A moderate increase on the distance between the CG of each team and a small decrease on the stretch index and on the relative stretch index from 2 targets to the 6 targets games was observed. It was also identified that pitch location affected the interaction between teams. When the game was played in lateral corridors or defensive sectors, the differences between game conditions increased. Emphasizing the information for attacking team to shoot at goal, by manipulating the number of targets constrained tactical behavior of teams. The amplification of specific information on small-sided games can help coaches to promote players and teams’ emergent adapted behaviors.     

中国优秀运动员6项心理技能研究

本研究采用标准化《运动心理技能问卷》并结合其它测试数据,对151名中国优秀运动员作了研究,结果表明:1.中国优秀运动员已初步掌握了焦虑控制(AX)、集中注意力(CC)、提高自信心(CF)、提高动机水平(MV)和加强集体意识(TM)的心理技能,他们在自信心和集体意识方面表现非常突出,而在心理准备(MP)方面则表现欠缺;2.除运动动机方面外,中国优秀运动页未表现出心理技能的差异性;3.运动等级(技术水平)不同,运动员的心理技能有差别;4.根据中国优秀运动员心理技能可以把他们分成4种类型,它们是心理技能发展水平较低的心理准备型和自信心型;心理技能发展水平较高的自信心——集体意识型和自信心——集中注意力型。     

Development and preliminary validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football

ObjectivesThis paper describes the development and preliminary evaluation of the Australian football Mental Toughness Inventory (AfMTI).MethodsConfirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were employed to explore the factor structure of a pool of items designed to capture the key components of mental toughness in Australian football [Gucciardi, D.F., Gordon, S., & Dimmock, J.A. (2008). Towards an understanding of mental toughness in Australian football. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20, 261–281.] Correlations between the four-factor inventory and flow, resilience, and social desirability were examined. The discriminant validity of the inventory was also assessed. Multisource ratings (self, parent, and coach) of the AfMTI were examined in experiment two.ResultsThe AfMTI is a 24-item scale that measures four components of mental toughness in Australian football – thrive through challenge, sport awareness, tough attitude, and desire success. It was shown to have adequate internal reliability estimates across different raters (α = .70–.89). Moderate correlations with flow and resilience were evidenced, while minimal correlations existed with social desirability. Multisource data were somewhat equivocal; correlational data suggested a disagreement between raters, whereas an ANOVA suggested agreement between raters.ConclusionsPreliminary data on the factor structure, internal reliability, and construct validity of the AfMTI were encouraging. However, the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the AfMTI must be verified through further psychometric examinations before it can be considered a useful tool for measuring mental toughness in Australian football.     

Mental health in retired professional football players: 12-month incidence,adverse life events and support

ObjectivesThe primary aim was to explore the incidence of symptoms of common mental disorders (CMD; distress, sleep disturbance, anxiety/depression, adverse alcohol use) in retired professional football players and to explore the association between adverse life events and the onset of symptoms of CMD. The secondary aim was to get an insight into the views and needs of retired professional football players on medical support related to symptoms of CMD.DesignAn observational prospective cohort study with three measurements over a follow-up period of twelve months was conducted among retired professional football players.MethodThe data for symptoms of CMD and adverse life events was collected by using validated questionnaires. The views and needs were explored by means of five questions.ResultsThe 12-month incidence of symptoms of CMD (self-reported and not clinically diagnosed) ranged from 11 to 29%. Retired professional football players with one or two life events were 1.7 times more likely to report distress than retired football players with no life events. The risk with three or more recent life events on sleep disturbance was more than 4.5 times higher than with no recent life events.ConclusionsThe 12-months incidence of symptoms of CMD in retired professional football players seems high compared to the general population. More life events showed a higher risk of experiencing distress and sleep disturbance in retired professional football players. The views and needs showed that there is a need for support for current and former professional football players.     

Competition Anxiety,Motivation, and Mental Toughness in Golf

The purpose of this study was to examine whether one's profile of motivation was associated with competition anxiety through mental toughness among 173 competitive golfers (164 men, 9 women). Latent profile analysis identified three distinct motivation profiles (high, moderate, and low motivation). Multicategorical mediation models demonstrated that athletes reporting low or moderate levels of motivation had higher levels of competition anxiety, with these associations partially mediated by lower levels of mental toughness. These findings would permit practitioners to better understand motivation, mental toughness, and competition anxiety symptoms, and their associations.     

A cognitive-behavioural analysis of mental toughness in national rugby league football teams

This study examined the relations between demographic characteristics of rugby players and selected aspects of psychological performance in rugby league football. Mental toughness was assessed using Psychological Performance Inventory and Hardiness on the Personal Views Survey III-R. Participants (N=70) were international rugby league footballers representing four teams (Wales, France, Ireland, England) in the 2000 Rugby League World Cup. Participants completed the questionnaires in training camp. Welsh-nationality players had a significantly higher mean score on two of the hardiness subscales. Hardiness measures displayed the greatest and most frequently statistically significant differences. The findings concur with previous work indicating superior hardiness is related to improved performance in sports.     

Exploration of the moderator effect of cultural diversity on team performance across 45 professional football leagues: An ecological dynamics perspective on cross-cultural research

ObjectiveTo investigate the moderating effect of cultural diversity on team performance in professional football worldwide through the lens of ecological dynamics and cross-cultural psychology.Designand Method: Based a sample of 23,186 matches played by 728 teams across 45 leagues during the 2020/21 season, two sets of moderated regression analyses were conducted to examine the effect on sporting results of the interaction between teams’ cultural diversity, their dominant playing style and market value. In addition to bivariate correlations, a total of 16 ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models were designed to test 5 hypotheses. A new theoretical model, the Integrative Categorization-Intentionality Model (ICIM), was proposed to explain four key findings.FindingsCDI’s role as a statistically significant cross-cultural moderator was confirmed in relation to all three styles of play: possession-based (ß = −0.08, p < 0.05), constructive attacking (ß = −0.30, p < 0.01), and defensive (ß = 0.28, p < 0.05), the respective models explaining 35.6%, 34% and 35% of the variance. Results showed that cultural heterogeneity contributes to goal scoring in teams reliant on the first two styles, whilst defensively-oriented teams were more likely to improve performance with increasing cultural homogeneity. Moreover, the positive effect of cultural heterogeneity on sporting outcomes was more likely in less affluent teams. Finally, empirical evidence revealed a link between enhanced performance and a higher proportion of domestic defensive players in defensively oriented teams (ß = −0.11, p < 0.05), and, similarly, between a higher proportion of foreign offensive players in offensively-oriented teams (ß = −0.27, p < 0.01).ConclusionsThe study has practical implications for scouting/recruitment of players when strategizing on team cultural and functional composition, as well as for coaches in terms of designing suitable training practices gauged to match and develop multicultural teams’ diverse skill set, or more generally, in relation to managing multicultural teams.     

Athletic Identity and Conformity to Masculine Norms Among College Football Players

Sport represent an influential institution of masculinity socialization that impacts the psychosocial development of many men in American society. In order to examine this dynamic, we investigated conformity to masculine norms among 523 college football players. Results indicated that participants’ conformity to traditional masculine norms was influenced by year in school, on-field position played, and athletic identity. Results of this interdisciplinary endeavor between the fields of sport psychology and the psychological study of men and masculinity can assist sport psychologists in designing interventions to help football players better understand messages of masculinity conveyed within the unique socialization context of football.     

Just Win the Game: The Reception of Arab Minorities on Israel’s National Football Team

ABSTRACT

The presence of minorities and immigrants in national sports settings specifically in football, is well documented in many places around the world. The growing presence of Arab ethnic minorities on Israel’s national football team reflects this trend, and, as I will argue, it shows how sports in Israeli society is a gateway for the integration of minorities into Israeli society, yet at the same time, it also exposes the unique and complex tensions between diverse identity groups in Israeli society. The current study examined Jewish-Israeli football fans’ attitudes to the significant presence of Arab-Muslim players on the national team (whose starting eleven includes 4–6 Arab-Muslim players, including its captain since 2018). Based upon an analysis of fan comments posted to social media, related to the 2018–2019 UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) Nations League campaign, this study reveals Jewish hegemonic attitudes toward Arab footballers, as well as Arab footballers’ relative autonomy. Admiration and empathy toward minority members are expressed after victories, but in the absence of these well-defined conditions for empathy, as in the cases of team defeats or manifestations of minority pride, Jewish football fans shifted immediately to blatant, derogatory, and patronizing comments that focused on Arab players’ loyalty and expressed patronizing superiority over the Arab players.     

A subculture of mental toughness in an Australian Football League club

ObjectiveThe current study aimed to provide a subcultural analysis of mental toughness in a high-performance context in sport.DesignUsing Schein's (1990) framework of organisational culture, an exploratory qualitative analysis, employing focus group and individual interviews, was used to investigate mental toughness in an Australian Football League club.MethodNine senior coaches and players participated in focus group and individual interviews. Photo elicitation was used as a method to capture mental toughness through the identification of prominent club artefacts. Participants were considered to have significant subcultural knowledge of their football club and were willing to describe personal experiences and perceptions of mental toughness through this cultural lens. Deductive and inductive analyses were conducted to capture the core themes of mental toughness across the disparate levels of Schein's organisational framework.ResultsMental toughness was found to be a socially derived term marked by unrelenting standards and sacrificial displays. These acts were underpinned by subcultural values emphasising a desire for constant improvement, a team first ethos, relentless effort, and the maintenance of an infallible image. At its core, mental toughness was assumed to be an internal concept, epitomised an idealised form of masculinity, elitist values, and was rhetorically depicted through metaphors of war.ConclusionsIt may be difficult to understand mental toughness without giving attention to the contextual norms related to the term. Appreciating how people promote, instil, and internalise prized ideals coveted as mental toughness could be intriguing for future research in sport psychology.     

Implementation of a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program to reduce stress,anxiety, and depression and to improve psychological well-being among retired Iranian football players

ObjectivesTo test whether a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program could reduce symptoms of anxiety, stress, and depression, and increase psychological well-being among retired Iranian football players compared to an active control group.DesignRandomized controlled trial, with an 8-week MBSR intervention (16 group sessions, 90 min each) and an active control group. Three data assessments were performed at baseline, eight weeks later after completion of the intervention, and again twelve weeks later at follow-up.MethodsForty male retired football players (M_age = 34.05, SD = 1.72) were randomly assigned either to the MBSR intervention or the active control condition. All participants completed questionnaires on perceived stress, anxiety, depression, and psychological well-being. Repeated measures analyses of variance were used to assess time by group interactions.ResultsSignificant time by group interaction effects were found for all outcomes. In the MBSR group, psychological well-being improved and symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression decreased over time from baseline to intervention completion and to follow-up. In the active control group, the outcomes remained relatively stable across time.ConclusionsThe present findings suggest that among male retired Iranian football players, a MBSR intervention has the potential to reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression, and to increase their psychological well-being. Potential (underlying) mechanisms were not assessed in the present study. In future investigations, researchers should try to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms which may explain the observed effects.     

Evaluation of a Mental Toughness Training Program for Youth-Aged Australian Footballers: I. A Quantitative Analysis

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of two different psychological skills training (PST) packages in enhancing mental toughness among three youth-aged (under 15 years old) Australian football teams. We compared a program targeting the keys to mental toughness identified previously (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008 Gucciardi, D. F., Gordon, S. and Dimmock, J. A. 2008. Towards an understanding of mental toughness in Australian football. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20: 261–281. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) with a more traditional PST program targeting self-regulation, arousal regulation, mental rehearsal, attentional control, self-efficacy, and ideal performance state as well as a control group. Overall, both intervention groups reported more positive changes in subjective ratings of mental toughness, resilience, and flow than the control group. Similar ratings for mental toughness were reported by the parents and coaches. Both PST packages appeared to be equally effective in enhancing mental toughness.     

Player quotas in elite club football

FIFA President Sepp Blatter’s recent attempt to resurrect the 6 + 5 quota for club football which limits the number of home-grown players to six is a protectionist measure at odds with global trends in free trade and freedom of movement. We remain unconvinced that his goals—to arrest the decline in the competitive quality and balance of international football, ensure greater investment in developing native talent and safeguarding national identity—are a problem or served well by such a regulation. We show that the impact of foreign players on national teams is mixed and restrictions are as likely to undermine the quality of national teams as much as they will improve them. Our moral case will show he is wrong to assert that elite club football’s prime agenda ought to be a nationalist one. We conclude that the primary threat to the integrity, competitive balance and cultural significance of football is not labour migration but misplaced financial imperatives that have an overriding impact on shaping football’s mode of production. The root cause for perverse labour practices, which may have a knock-on effect on the quality of some international teams, is due to the scale and uneven distribution of money. It is here, particularly with respect to the power of European ‘super-clubs’ that reform is needed most.     

The decision to adopt a formal athlete leadership group: Qualitative insights from professional football coaches

ObjectivesAthlete Leadership Groups (ALGs) are increasingly being employed in professional football teams and whilst there is a growing body of quantitative research focussed on athlete leadership in other contexts, qualitative studies at the professional level are scant. The purpose of this study is to explore coaches' adoption of formal ALGs in professional football teams and what influences their decisions about the degree to which players are given leadership responsibilities and roles.DesignQualitative- Inductive.Method16 head coaches from 16 professional football teams, across four leagues (Super Rugby n = 4, National Rugby League n = 5, A League n = 3 and Australian Football League n = 4), participated in semi-structured interviews investigating why coaches are increasingly using ALGs in this environment and what influences the extent to which these ALGs are empowered.ResultsAn inductive thematic analysis indicated coaches' initial decisions to adopt an ALG model were influenced by a range of perceived benefits (team management, team functioning and performance) underpinned by personal factors (past experience, coaching philosophy, interpersonal style and understanding of social influence) and their appraisal of situational considerations (readiness, expectations and commitment), which influenced their ALG implementation decisions (how and to what extent players were empowered and leadership responsibilities delegated).ConclusionsOverall, the coaches' decision to use ALGs in the professional football environment was influenced by a belief that player ownership and autonomy, coupled with the influence of peer leadership underpins performance benefits on and off-field and plays a key role in team culture. However, findings suggest that coaches contemplating adopting an ALG model should take an individually tailored approach. For this approach to be effective, coaches consider and address a range of situational factors, and ensure the leadership model adopted reflects their personal beliefs and the capacity and context of the team.