The interactive effect of positive and negative occupational attributional styles on job motivation

Research on attributional style in the work setting has generated inconsistent results concerning the effect attributional styles for positive and negative events have on job motivation and performance. This study set out to examine whether attributional style for positive and for negative work-related events, and their interaction, are related to job motivation. One hundred and sixteen working adults completed questionnaires measuring positive and negative attributional styles, and job motivation. The findings showed that both positive and negative attributional styles, as well as their interaction, were predictors of job motivation. The interactive effect suggests that a negative attributional style is negatively related to job motivation in the absence, but not in the presence, of a positive attributional style. It was also found that employees who have stayed for a reasonably long time with an organization (more than 4 years) are particularly vulnerable to negative attributional style. These findings are discussed in terms of the theoretical framework of positive?–?negative asymmetry in evaluations. Implications concerning the measurement of occupational attributional style are presented, as well as practical applications for organizations.     

正负数混合呈现对负数SNARC效应的影响

采用数字大小判断任务,探讨正负数混合呈现对负数SNARC效应的影响。结果发现,负数单独呈现条件下,负数出现反转的SNARC效应;负数和无加号正数混合呈现,且只对负数作反应条件下,负数有反转SNARC效应;负数和有加号正数混合呈现,且只对负数作反应条件下,负数出现反转SNARC效应;负数和无加号正数混合呈现,并对正负数分别作反应的条件下,负数有反转SNARC效应出现,而正数出现SNARC效应。说明负数空间表征受其绝对值大小的影响,绝对值较小的负数(-1、-2)表征在心理数字线的左侧,绝对值较大的负数(-8、-9)表征在数字线的右侧,且不能延伸至心理数字线左侧。     

正负数混合呈现对负数SNARC效应的影响

采用数字大小判断任务,探讨正负数混合呈现对负数SNARC效应的影响。结果发现,负数单独呈现条件下,负数出现反转的SNARC效应;负数和无加号正数混合呈现,且只对负数作反应条件下,负数有反转SNARC效应;负数和有加号正数混合呈现,且只对负数作反应条件下,负数出现反转SNARC效应;负数和无加号正数混合呈现,并对正负数分别作反应的条件下,负数有反转SNARC效应出现,而正数出现SNARC效应。说明负数空间表征受其绝对值大小的影响,绝对值较小的负数(-1、-2)表征在心理数字线的左侧,绝对值较大的负数(-8、-9)表征在数字线的右侧,且不能延伸至心理数字线左侧。     

The effect of asymmetrical association on positive and negative semantic priming

One's actively ignoring a stimulus can impair subsequent responding to that stimulus. This negative priming effect has been argued to generalize to semantically related items as well, but the evidence for this is still somewhat weak. This article presents a new experiment in which participants made lexical decisions to asymmetrically associated prime-target pairs presented in either the forward (e.g., stork-baby) or backward (e.g., baby-stork) direction. The critical new finding was that both attended positive and ignored negative semantic priming occurred only for prime-target pairs presented in the forward direction. The results support either (1) a spreading inhibition model in which items associated with an ignored distractor are inhibited during prime selection or (2) a version of episodic retrieval theory in which the prime distractor and items associated with it are tagged as "to-be-ignored" during prime selection.     

The positive effect of negative emotions in protracted conflict: The case of anger

Extant research has demonstrated the destructive role that anger plays in the context of intergroup conflict. Among other findings, it has been established that anger elevates public support for aggressive and violent actions towards the outgroup. This finding has been explained by the unique cognitive appraisals, emotional goal, and response tendencies associated with anger, typified by appraised relative strength and high control, motivation to correct perceived wrongdoings, and willingness to engage in risky behavior. In the current work we examine an innovative assumption, according to which the apparent destructive implications of anger are a result of situational range restriction—namely, that anger as a group emotion has been examined almost solely at the escalation stage of conflict. Instead, we propose that the same unique characteristics of anger can bring about constructive political attitudes and support for non-violent policies in the context of systematic efforts to de-escalate a protracted conflict.To test this hypothesis we conducted two studies in which we examined the relationship between anger and the willingness to engage in positive risk-taking and support non-violent policies in the context of political negotiations between adversaries. Results indicate a significant positive relationship, supporting the hypothesis that anger is not an exclusively militant emotion, and its effects are situationally dependent.     

The eyes have it: making positive expressions more positive and negative expressions more negative

Facial expressions frequently involve multiple individual facial actions. How do facial actions combine to create emotionally meaningful expressions? Infants produce positive and negative facial expressions at a range of intensities. It may be that a given facial action can index the intensity of both positive (smiles) and negative (cry-face) expressions. Objective, automated measurements of facial action intensity were paired with continuous ratings of emotional valence to investigate this possibility. Degree of eye constriction (the Duchenne marker) and mouth opening were each uniquely associated with smile intensity and, independently, with cry-face intensity. In addition, degree of eye constriction and mouth opening were each unique predictors of emotion valence ratings. Eye constriction and mouth opening index the intensity of both positive and negative infant facial expressions, suggesting parsimony in the early communication of emotion.     

The effect of positive and negative emotions on young drivers: A simulator study

The study examined the influence of affect induction on actual risk-taking behavior in a driving simulator, as well as the links between personal variables (relevance of driving to self-esteem, sensation seeking) and the level of risky driving. Eighty young drivers aged 18–21 (M = 19.24, SD = 0.75) were randomly divided into four induction groups: relaxing positive affect; arousing positive affect; negative affect; and neutral affect. The participants drove on a simulator, with various parameters of risky driving measured before and after emotion priming.As predicted, arousing positive affect and negative affect led to increased risky driving, whereas relaxing positive affect moderated risk-taking. In addition, the results confirm previous findings regarding the personal variables, revealing that higher levels of relevance of driving to self-esteem and sensation seeking are associated with higher levels of risk-taking in the simulated driving.The findings indicate that the driver’s emotional state has a significant effect on risk-taking on the road. Moreover, they show that the conventional use of negative affect in safe driving campaigns is liable to heighten the tendency for risky driving rather than reduce it. In contrast, relaxing positive affect was found to lead to lower risk-taking. The study is unique in revealing a correlation between results previously obtained for the willingness to drive recklessly and actual risky driving behavior observed on a driving simulator. By expanding the understanding of the motivations for youngsters’ risky driving, the study may aid in designing effective, theoretically sound, interventions aimed at reducing the tendency for dangerous driving among young drivers.     

The cost of good fortune: when positive life events produce negative health consequences

Previous research regarding the effects of positive life events on physical health has been inconclusive. We tested the hypothesis that positive life events have a detrimental effect on health only among people with negative self-views. This prediction derives from an identity disruption model of stress, which holds that an accumulation of life events that are inconsistent with the self-concept leads to physical illness. To test the hypothesis, we conducted two prospective studies in which positive life events and self-esteem were used to predict the development of illness over time. In accordance with predictions, both studies showed that desirable life changes were associated with increases in illness only among subjects with low self-esteem; among subjects with high self-esteem, positive life events were linked to better health. Implications for understanding the manner in which life events affect health are considered.     

The effect of multiple negative,neutral, and positive organizational changes

Organizational change research has largely concluded that employees appraise changes in their workplace negatively and thus respond negatively to greater amounts of change. However, whether this conclusion is warranted remains unclear because previous research has examined single workplace changes in isolation or asked employees to make a global assessment of the changing nature of their workplace. Researchers have not had the means to capture the number of changes employees experience or their appraisals of the many different changes occurring in their workplace. In this study, we developed and validated the Quantity of Change Scale (QCS) to provide a more nuanced understanding of employees’ appraisals of their changing workplace. We found that the negative changes employees experience disproportionately influenced their reactions to the changing work environment. However, we also demonstrated that contrary to popular belief, employees appraised fewer changes as negative than as positive or neutral. Together these findings provide new insight into why assessments of employees’ general reactions to workplace change tend to be negative. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our empirical examination of employees’ appraisals of the many changes in their workplace.     

The effect of contact with natural environments on positive and negative affect: A meta-analysis

A growing body of empirical research suggests that brief contact with natural environments improves emotional well-being. The current study synthesizes this body of research using meta-analytic techniques and assesses the mean effect size of exposure to natural environments on both positive and negative affect. Thirty-two studies with a total of 2356 participants were included. Across these studies, exposure to natural environments was associated with a moderate increase in positive affect and a smaller, yet consistent, decrease in negative affect relative to comparison conditions. Significant heterogeneity was found for the effect of nature on positive affect, and type of emotion assessment, type of exposure to nature, location of study, and mean age of sample were found to moderate this effect. The implications of these findings for existing theory and research are discussed, with particular emphasis placed on potential avenues for fruitful future research examining the effects of nature on well-being.     

Taking on board liability-focused information. Close positive relationships as a self-bolstering resource

Do close positive relationships function as a self-bolstering resource, armoring the self against potentially threatening information? After taking a difficult and important intellectual ability test, participants visualized a relationship that was close positive, close negative, or neutral (Experiment 1) or a relationship that was close positive, close negative, distant positive, or distant negative (Experiment 2). All participants received bogus unfavorable feedback about their performance and subsequently indicated their interest in obtaining further liability-focused information about the performance domain and the underlying intellectual ability. Participants who visualized close positive relationships expressed the highest interest in receiving such information, despite rating it as unpleasant. State self-esteem and mood did not account for this effect, although warm affect for the relational partner did. Close positive relationships function as a psychological resource that bolsters the self against feedback about a newly discovered liability to the point where receptivity to additional liability-relevant information actually increases.     

Coping and physical health during caregiving: the roles of positive and negative affect

The associations among coping, mood, and health variables were examined prospectively over 2 years in 86 HIV positive (HIV+) and 167 HIV negative (HIV-) gay men undergoing the stress of AIDS-related caregiving. Path models suggested that including both positive and negative mood and the men's associated coping strategies increases understanding of why some people suffer adverse health effects during times of stress. Among the HIV- caregivers, higher levels of social coping predicted increases in positive affect, which in turn resulted in lower levels of physical symptoms. In contrast, higher levels of cognitive avoidance predicted increases in negative affect, which in turn resulted in higher levels of physical symptoms. Self-injurious forms of avoidance coping predicted higher levels of physical symptoms independent of mood among the HIV+ caregivers.     

The processing of positive and negative information

An affirmative statement which is known to be false and the complementary negative statement which is known to be true, provide the same information, i.e. that something is not the case. Similarly, an affirmative statement which is known to be true and the complementary negative statement which is known to be false, both imply that something is the case. (If P is false, not-P is true and if P is true, not-P is false.) Hence there are four kinds of statement (“conditions”): true affirmatives, false affirmatives, true negativee and false negatives, but only two kinds of information: positive and negative.

This experiment investigates the times taken to process information presented in these ways. The task was to select two alternative words which would make affirmative or negative conjunctive statements agree or conflict with given situations. The four conditions were presented six times in different serial orders, so that each occurred once in every block of four trials. The mean response times were: true affirmatives 8-99 sec, false affirmatives 11 19 sec., true negatives 12-58 sec, false negatives 15-17 sec. This order was the same at each of the six presentations of the conditions, the differences being significant at the 0 001 level in each case. There was a pronounced decline in errors (without knowledge of results) for three of the conditions. These results are discussed in relation to (i) the assumption of a positive set, established through a long learning process; (ii) the inferential nature of negative information in relation to experience; and (iii) the possible emotional effects of negative terms.     

Autobiographical memory distributions for negative self-images: Memories are organised around negative as well as positive aspects of identity

The relationship between developmental experiences, and an individual's emerging beliefs about themselves and the world, is central to many forms of psychotherapy. People suffering from a variety of mental health problems have been shown to use negative memories when defining the self; however, little is known about how these negative memories might be organised and relate to negative self-images. In two online studies with middle-aged (N = 18; study 1) and young (N = 56; study 2) adults, we found that participants' negative self-images (e.g., I am a failure) were associated with sets of autobiographical memories that formed clustered distributions around times of self-formation, in much the same pattern as for positive self-images (e.g., I am talented). This novel result shows that highly organised sets of salient memories may be responsible for perpetuating negative beliefs about the self. Implications for therapy are discussed.     

Coping, negative affectivity, and the work environment: additive and interactive predictors of mental health

The present study tested the hypothesis that direct coping would moderate relations between work stress and mental health outcome, whereas suppression (a form of emotion-focused coping) would show an overall effect on outcome. Data on coping, perceived work demand and support, and affective symptoms were obtained from trainee teachers (N = 157). The results supported the hypothesis. Gender differences also were observed; men reported more use of suppression than did women. In addition, negative affectivity (NA) was examined as a confounding variable and as an index of reactivity in stress-outcome relations. NA acted to inflate associations between work perceptions and affective symptoms, but it was also a significant moderator variable; high NA subjects showed greater reactivity to work demand than did low NA subjects.     

大小判断任务中正负号及其异同对SNARC效应的影响

SNARC效应(Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes)是指被试对数字做按键反应时,对于较小的数字,按左键的速度快于按右键;对于较大的数字,按右键的速度快于按左键。本研究以ERP作为测量手段,采用修正的大小判断任务,旨在探究数字正负号及其异同对SNARC效应的影响。行为结果发现,在反应时上,当目标数字与基线数字正负号相同且基线数字为+5时,一致条件显著快于不一致条件。ERP结果发现,当目标数字与基线数字正负号相同时,无论基线数字为+5还是–5,在反应选择阶段,不一致都比一致条件更负且均诱发了P3。当目标数字与基线数字正负号相异时,若基线数字为+5,一致比不一致条件在刺激呈现阶段诱发了波幅显著更小的N300;若基线数字为–5,一致比不一致条件在反应执行阶段诱发了更正的LPP。无论目标数字与基线数字正负号相同还是相异,在反应选择阶段,不一致都比一致条件更负且均诱发了P3,表明出现了SNARC效应。同时,SNARC效应的出现激活了额叶头皮位置,负数加工伴随左额叶的激活,而正数加工伴随右额叶的激活,溯源分析结果进一步表明SNARC效应定位于额叶与顶叶。这些结果说明负数按实际大小表征在心理数字线上,支持了负数空间表征的个体发展论假说;表明符号捷径机制会改变SNARC效应的发生时间;同时证明了负数与正数的空间表征具有不同的优势半球。     

Physical health, positive and negative affect, and personality: A longitudinal analysis

This study used structural equation modeling to examine longitudinal relations among physical health, personality and mood in a sample of 360 college students. Research focused on the longitudinal associations among physical health and mood and their systematic relations with the Big Five personality dimensions of Extraversion and Neuroticism. Longitudinal analyses over successive 1-month intervals revealed lagged reciprocal effects between physical health and negative affect. After controlling for the effect of negative affect, physical health influenced subsequent positive affect, but positive affect did not influence subsequent physical health. Implications of these findings for subsequent research on health, personality, and emotions are discussed.