Emoticons in computer-mediated communication: social motives and social context.

This study investigated the role of emoticons in computer-mediated communication (CMC). The study consisted of an online questionnaire about the social motives for emoticon use and an experimental part in which participants (N = 1,251) had to respond to short Internet chats. In these chats, the interaction partner (friend vs. stranger) and the valence of the context (positive vs. negative) were manipulated. Results showed that emoticons are mostly used to express emotion, to strengthen a message, and to express humor. Furthermore, more emoticons were used in communication with friends than in communication with strangers, and more emoticons were used in a positive context than in a negative context. Participants seem to use emoticons in a way similar to facial behavior in face-to-face communication with respect to social context and interaction partner.     

Organisation and evocation of the semantic knowledge: a non-abstractive approach

The majority of the models which attempt to explain category-specific deficits are based on the assumption that the conceptual knowledge is represented in a permanent way in memory (abstractive view). showed that a non-abstractive view would be more suitable to account for some of these cases. The present study aims to assess the hypotheses on the meaning evocation process as formulated by these authors, using a property verification task conducted on healthy subjects. The data were in agreement with these hypotheses and would be more hardly accounted in the frame of the abstractive view.     

Door-in-the-face technique and monetary solicitation: an evaluation in a field setting

To test the door-in-the-face technique for a private solicitation, 53 men and 37 women in several bars were engaged. In one condition, a female confederate asked the subject to buy her drink because her boyfriend had left without paying the bill. After the subject refused, the confederate requested only 2 or 3 coins. In the control condition, the latter request was the only one. Analysis showed a dramatic increase in compliance for the door-in-the-face condition. A positive effect of the door-in-the-face technique was also observed for the average amount of the donation. The accentuation of the solicitor's dependency in the door-in-the-face condition seemed relevant for explanation.     

Online mentoring and computer-mediated communication: New directions in research

While there has been a veritable explosion of online mentoring websites and opportunities within a wide variety of professions, very few academic articles to date have addressed this phenomenon. The purpose of this article is to remedy this gap in our knowledge by: (a) suggesting that the Internet can provide a viable context for mentoring within defined roles, (b) presenting a new typology of mentoring based on the computer-mediated-communication (CMC) literature, and in doing so suggest new opportunities and challenges, and (c) providing recommendations for researchers and practitioners to explore online mentoring. Past research has found that within the three functions of mentoring (psychosocial, vocational, and role modeling), a mentor can play a number of roles such as business coach, friend, counselor, and/or teacher to a protégé. We extend past research by assessing the major issues applicable to these mentor roles through an examination of CMC literature. We provide specific research propositions to inspire future research into online mentoring and its related contexts, roles, opportunities, and challenges.     

Subthreshold semantic priming: Not a context effect

Bernstein, Bissonnette, Vyas, and Barclay (1989) showed that masked primes can be recognized more often when followed by a related target than when followed by an unrelated target. They suggested that this effect may allow subjects in subthreshold semantic priming experiments to recognize the masked primes on the related semantic priming trials, even when the subjects cannot recognize masked primes presented alone. The present experiment found that when masked primes are presented at recognition rates comparable to those used in published studies of subthreshold masked priming, the forced choice recognition of masked primes followed by related targets was similar to that of masked primes presented alone (25% vs. 22%). In addition, the recognition of masked primes on the forced choice trials was highly predictive of masked prime recognition on the semantic priming trials.     

Sex differences in perceived attributes of computer-mediated communication

Researchers have pointed to the influence of sex with respect to the attributes of the computer medium. The author elaborates upon possible sex differences in reference to perceived attributes of the computer medium, i.e., Richness, Accessibility, Velocity, Interactivity, Plasticity, and Immediacy. Data from both a pilot and main study are reported and interpreted. The pilot study included 78 participants, while the main study involved 211. The independent samples were composed of Communication Studies students enrolled at two Mid-Atlantic universities. Nine items with anchors of 1: strongly disagree and 7: strongly agree were taken from the 2000 Computer Mediated Communication Competence Scale of Spitzberg to assess the attributes of computer-mediated interaction. The results indicate that women scored higher than men on perceptions of Accessibility, Velocity, Interactivity, and Immediacy.     

Utilizing usernames for sex categorization in computer-mediated communication: examining perceptions and accuracy.

As more interpersonal interactions move online, people increasingly get to know and recognize one another by their self-selected identifiers called usernames. Early research predicted that the lack of available cues in text based computer-mediated communication (CMC) would make primitive categories such as biological sex irrelevant in online interactions. Little is known about the types of perceptions people make about one another based on this information, but some limited research has shown that questions about gender are the first to be asked in online interactions and sex categorization has maintained salience. The current project was designed to examine the extent to which individuals might include obvious gender information in their usernames, as well as how easily gender could be attributed from usernames. Seventy-five coders were asked whether or not they could assign 298 people to a sex category based only on their username, and then to rate how confident they were in making the attribution. Results indicated that coders were fairly inaccurate in making these attributions, but moderately confident. Additionally, the results indicated that neither women nor men were more accurate in attributing gender from usernames, and that neither women nor men tended to use more obvious gender markers in their usernames. Additionally, those who did use obvious gender markers in their username tended to have less experience with computer chat. The results are discussed in conjunction with the limitations of the present investigation, and possibilities for future research.     

Psychological underpinnings of intrafamilial computer-mediated communication: a preliminary exploration of CMC uptake with parents and siblings

This preliminary study investigates the uptake of computer-mediated communication (CMC) with parents and siblings, an area on which no research appears to have been conducted. Given the lack of relevant literature, grounded theory methodology was used and online focus group discussions were conducted in an attempt to generate suitable hypotheses for further empirical studies. Codification of the discussion data revealed various categories of meaning, namely: a perceived inappropriateness of CMC with members of family of origin; issues relating to the family generational gap; the nature of the offline sibling/parent relationship; the non-viability of online affordances such as planned self-disclosure, deception, identity construction; and disinhibition in interactions with family-of-origin members. These themes could be molded into hypotheses to assess the psychosocial limitations of CMC and to determine if it can indeed become a ubiquitous alternative to traditional communication modes as some scholars have claimed.     

Cumulative and non-cumulative semantic interference in object naming: Evidence from blocked and continuous manipulations of semantic context

Experiments involving blocked and continuous manipulations of the semantic naming context demonstrate that, when speakers name several taxonomically related objects in close succession, they display persistent interference effects. A review of studies using the blocked paradigm shows that, unlike the continuous paradigm, it typically does not induce cumulative interference effects in healthy speakers. This contrasts with the simulation results obtained from a model of semantic context effects recently put forward by Oppenheim and colleagues [Oppenheim, G. M., Dell, G. S., & Schwartz, M. F. (2010). The dark side of incremental learning: A model of cumulative semantic interference during lexical access in speech production. Cognition, 114, 227--262], which generates cumulative effects in both paradigms. We propose that the effects are non-cumulative in the blocked paradigm, because it allows participants to bias top-down the levels of activation of lexical-semantic representations, thereby curtailing the accumulating interference. Indeed, prior research has shown that the interference effects in the blocked paradigm are exacerbated when participants carry out a concurrent digit-retention task, loading on working memory and reducing their capacity to exert a top-down bias. In Experiment 1, combining the continuous paradigm with a digit-retention task, we demonstrate that this does not exacerbate cumulative context effects, corroborating the selective role of working memory and the associated top-down biasing mechanism in the blocked paradigm. A review of neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies demonstrates that left inferior frontal regions may play a critical role in controlling semantic interference top-down. We discuss the implications of these findings for language production research and for models of lexical-semantic encoding.     

Organizational context and face-to-face interaction: Influences on the development of trust and collaborative behaviors in computer-mediated groups

Using adaptive structuration theory as a framework [DeSanctis, G., & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive structuration theory. Organization Science, 5(2), 121–147], we examined the influence of organizational context (competitive versus cooperative) and introductory meeting communication medium (face-to-face versus electronic) on the development of trust and collaborative behaviors of dyads communicating electronically. Based on a sample of 208 senior business students operating in computer-mediated (CM) dyads while performing a strategic decision-making simulation, we found that context, introductory communication medium, and time interacted to influence trust and collaborative behaviors. The pattern of development of trust and collaborative behaviors differed for the same introductory communication medium in different context conditions. Further, the level of trust and collaboration for dyad members in the competitive/electronic introductory meeting condition lagged significantly behind those in the other conditions. The findings suggest that introductory face-to-face interaction plays a more important role in facilitating the development of trust and collaboration in a CM environment when the context is competitive.     

Anxiety in the context of cognitive semantic processes

In this experiment anxiety is understood as an indicator for specific structures in the semantic memory. In order to prove this hypothesis a number of positive (12) and negative (11) events were associated. Furthermore the events have been classified the scale "anxious--non anxious". In the experiment 69 subjects took part. Previously the subjects completed the STAI-Trait-part; these data were used to divide the subjects into groups of high (HA) and low (LA) anxious persons (median of the sample). Those associations were analysed in a qualitative and quantitative way. ANOVAS were calculated as well as overlap coefficients and Type-Token-Ratios. HA have more negative associations. LA produce more positive associations. LA show a significantly higher overlap coefficient with positive events, respectively a smaller TTR. The results are discussed in context with psycholinguistic theories.     

Age-related declines in context maintenance and semantic short-term memory

This study reports age-related declines in context maintenance (Braver et al., 2001) and semantic short-term memory (STM) and evidence for a relation between the two. A group of younger and older adults completed a context maintenance task (AX-CPT), a semantically oriented STM task (conceptual span), a phonologically oriented STM task (digit span), and a meaning integration task (semantic anomaly judgement). In the AX-CPT task, a target response is required to the probe letter “X” but only when it is preceded by the letter “A” (the context). Either three (short interference) or six distractor letters (long interference) were presented between the cue and the probe. Results indicated an age-related deficit in context maintenance. Age-related declines were also observed for conceptual span and semantic anomaly judgement but not for digit span. Context maintenance was correlated with conceptual span and semantic anomaly judgement but not with digit span. These correlations were largely mediated by age differences, which also explained variance that was unique to (and not shared among) context maintenance, conceptual span, and semantic anomaly judgement.     

Processing category terms in context: instantiation and the structure of semantic categories

The present study sought to determine if semantic categories processed in context are encoded as particular exemplars. In Experiment 1 we replicated previous results on an extended and modified set of stimuli by showing that when subjects read sentences containing a category term in a context designed to bias encoding toward an atypical exemplar, the atypical exemplar serves as a better retrieval cue than a typical exemplar. In Experiment 2 we tested whether these cued-recall results were due to processes operating at encoding or retrieval. The pattern of semantic interference obtained in a modified Stroop paradigm clearly contradicted the position that readers routinely encode general terms as examples, or "instantiations." In particular, there was significant color-naming interference when typical exemplars served as targets even when preceded by sentences designed to bias encoding toward an atypical exemplar. No significant color-naming interference was generated to atypical exemplars. Experiment 3 ruled out the possibility that differences between the cued-recall and Stroop results in the first two experiments were due to encoding strategy differences. It was concluded that assigning a referent to a category term is not a routine activity in sentence encoding and that processing category terms entails activation of summary representations.     

Dual semantic encoding of homographs and homophones embedded in context

Dual encoding of homographs and homophones was inferred from the intrusion of their alternative meanings across trials in two experiments using a modified Brown-Peterson paradigm. In Experiment 1 subjects heard a word triad and then engaged in a 10.5-sec distractor task. Written recall was then demanded. On context trials a homophone with alternative meanings belonging to two distinct categories was embedded in a triad biasing one meaning, e.g., helpless,/wik/, fragile. On the next trial, words from the category of the other meaning were presented, e.g., year, month, decade. A significant number of intrusions of the alternative coding of the homophone, e.g., WEEK, across the category boundary were observed. Experiment 2 employed visual presentation of embedded homographs, e.g., plunged, jumped, DOVE, and oral recall but was logically similar to Experiment 1. Intrusions of the alternative codings of homographs across category boundaries, e.g., pigeon, sparrow,/d Λ v/, were again noted.     

Retrieving texts from an external store: the effects of an explanatory context and of semantic fit between text and address

Summary External-information storage may reduce the load on human memory. But if information is preserved in an external store the task of retrieving information from that store puts new demands on memory. This creates a trade-off between internal and external storage. One of the prerequisites for external retrieval is learning an address. In this study, the trade-off between internal and external retrieval is exemplified by contrasting the memorization of written texts with the memorization of addresses under which these texts are stored in a computer file. In Experiment 1 Ss were tested for the retention of addresses. In Experiment 2 they were tested for the retention of texts, but had the choice between memorizing the texts and memorizing an address under which the texts were available. Independent variables were the availability of an explanatory context, and the semantic fit between address and text. An explanatory context improved address learning in Experiment 1 and unaided recall in Experiment 2. It did not influence the utilization of addresses as tested in Experiment 2. The semantic fit between address and text had a considerable impact on both the learning and the utilization of addresses. Whereas some subjects were assigned standard addresses, others generated their own addresses. Self-generated addresses had effects similar to standard addresses selected for high semantic fit. It is suggested that learning an external address involves an internal representation of the material stored under that address.     

Shyness, sociability, and the use of computer-mediated communication in relationship development.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) offers its users a reduced-cues environment, a chosen degree of identifiability to others, and a forum to express facets of one's self. Previous research suggests CMC is more appealing than traditional forms of communication to certain individuals whose desires to be sociable with others are prohibited by social inhibitions. The present study predicted that individuals who indicated higher levels of both shyness and sociability would be able to express their true-selves to a greater extent online. Their relationships online would grow more quickly and be more satisfying relative to others. The pattern of results supports our hypotheses, except for the predicted relationship between true-self expression and CMC use. Suggestions for future research as well as implications for the application of CMC use in therapy for certain populations are addressed.     

List context fosters semantic processing: parallels between semantic and morphological facilitation when primes are forward masked

The authors examined patterns of facilitation under forward-masked priming conditions across 3 list contexts (Experiments 1-3) that varied with respect to properties of filler trials -- (a) mixed (morphological, orthographic, semantic), (b) identity, and (c) semantic -- but held the relatedness proportion constant (75%). Facilitation for targets that were related morphologically to their prime occurred regardless of filler context, but facilitation for semantically related pairs occurred only in the context of identity and semantic fillers. Facilitation was absent for orthographically similar prime-target pairs in all 3 filler contexts when matching numbers of orthographically similar word-word and word-nonword prime-target pairs rendered orthographic similarity uninformative with respect to lexicality of the target. Enhanced semantic and morphological facilitation in the context of identity and semantic relative to mixed fillers support a semantically attuned, as contrasted with a purely form-based, account of early morphological processing.     

Effects of semantic context in the naming of pictures and words

Two experiments investigated whether lexical retrieval for speaking can be characterized as a competitive process by assessing the effects of semantic context on picture and word naming in German. In Experiment 1 we demonstrated that pictures are named slower in the context of same-category items than in the context of items from various semantic categories, replicating findings by Kroll and Stewart (Journal of Memory and Language, 33 (1994) 149). In Experiment 2 we used words instead of pictures. Participants either named the words in the context of same- or different-category items, or produced the words together with their corresponding determiner. While in the former condition words were named faster in the context of same-category items than of different-category items, the opposite pattern was obtained for the latter condition. These findings confirm the claim that the interfering effect of semantic context reflects competition in the retrieval of lexical entries in speaking.     

Neural localization of semantic context effects in electromagnetic and hemodynamic studies

Measures of electrical brain activity (event-related potentials, ERPs) have been useful in understanding language processing for several decades. Extant data suggest that the amplitude of the N400 component of the ERP is a general index of the ease or difficulty of retrieving stored conceptual knowledge associated with a word, which is dependent on both the stored representation itself, and the retrieval cues provided by the preceding context. Recordings from patients with brain damage, intracranial recordings, and magnetoencephalographic data implicate a (probably large portion of) the left temporal lobe as the largest source of the N400 semantic context effect, with a substantial but lesser contribution from the right temporal lobe. Event-related functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) studies using semantic context manipulations are dominated by observations of greater hemodynamic activity for incongruent sentence completions or semantically unrelated words than congruent or related words, consistent with the direction of the ERP effect. The locations of the hemodynamic effects show some variability across studies, but one commonly identified region is the left superior temporal gyrus, which is compatible with the electrophysiological results. A second commonly identified region in the fMRI studies is the left inferior frontal gyrus, which does not appear to make a substantial contribution to the N400 effect.