Negro Responses to Certain Intelligence Test Items

Fifty-eight female undergraduate students were administered the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), Figural form B, and the Washington Sentence Completion Test in order to investigate the hypothesis of a positive relationship between creativity and ego development. A Spearman rank order correlation coefficient was computed for ego development and each TTCT creativity factor (fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration), as well as a total composite creativity score. All creativity scores correlated with ego development at the .01 level, except for originality, which correlated at the .05 level. Results were discussed in terms of Maslow's theories concerning highly developed persons, and possible preconscious aspects of the creative process. Conclusions were drawn, and recommendations for further research were made.     

Delta and spindle components in the integrated EEG during nocturnal sleep for infants with developmental disabilities

The delta and spindle components in the integrated EEG for 121 infants with developmental disabilities (from 4 mo. to 6 yr. of age: M=1.79, SD=0.14; 57 girls and 64 boys) were studied throughout nocturnal sleep. In 80 (66.1%, Group A) of 121 subjects, periodic changes of delta and spindle rhythm powers were noted in measurements of EEG made during sleep. In 28 (23.1%, Group B), delta but not spindle rhythm powers were found, and in the remaining 13 subjects (10.7%, Group C) neither delta nor spindle rhythm powers were found throughout measurements of EEG made during sleep. The Tsumori-Inage Questionnaire for Infants was administered to the parents to estimate subjects' behavioral developmental level as Developmental Quotients. Significantly lower mean Developmental Quotients were found for Groups B and C than Group A. These findings suggested that the presence or absence of delta and spindle rhythm powers in EEG measurements made during nocturnal sleep could be taken as an index of the severity of developmental disorders in infants with developmental disabilities.     

Implicit identification of irrelevant local objects interacts with global/local processing of hierarchical stimuli

This work aimed at studying interactions between automatic object identification and global/local perceptual processing. We designed a paradigm in which participants were presented with pairs of hierarchically organized items, composed of global forms made up of local forms. Both global and local forms could represent either objects or non-objects. Subjects were instructed to detect whether the two hierarchical items composing a pair were identical or different. In a dissimilar pair, items differed at one level (target level), the other level, made of similar forms on both sides, was irrelevant to perform the task. We hypothesized that the automatic identification of object could affect the global precedence principle defined by Navon. In agreement with our hypothesis, we found that when the irrelevant level was made of objects, the global precedence effect was reversed. In contrast, the irrelevant level had no effect when the target level included only objects, or when the irrelevant level was made of non-object, the global precedence principle was being preserved in these cases. This interaction is compatible with the existence of two distinct processes working in parallel, namely automatic identification and structural analysis, that could either interfere or act together for the detection of differences.     

First came the trees, then the forest: developmental changes during childhood in the processing of visual local-global patterns according to the meaningfulness of the stimuli

This study investigated how global and local perceptual processes evolve during childhood according to the meaningfulness of the stimuli. Children had to decide whether visually presented pairs of items were identical or not. Items consisted of global forms made up of local forms. Both global and local forms could represent either objects or nonobjects. In dissimilar pairs, items differed at one level (target level), while the other level included similar forms on both sides (irrelevant level). The results indicate an evolution from local preference at 4 years of age to adult-like global preference at 9 years of age. Moreover, as previously reported in adults, regardless of age, identification impaired performance when the irrelevant level was made of objects and the target level was made of nonobjects (interference). However, in younger children, this interference existed even when objects were present at all levels, suggesting that the strategy used to perform the comparison task also varied according to age.     

Operant learning principles applied to teaching introductory statistics

A grade of A was given in an introductory statistics course for meeting a set of contingencies that included no work outside of class (except by request), near-perfect performance on exams following each unit of work in a programmed text, correction of all exam errors, self pacing of work, and the chance to finish the course early. A grade of incomplete was given otherwise. Correlations among performance measures failed to show any meaningful relationships between time taken to finish the course, errors made on exams, and errors made in the programmed text. Responses to a five-part questionnaire were overwhelmingly favorable to the course, but did not vary as a function of grade point average, time taken to finish the course, or number of errors made on exams. The uniformly high level of performance, the students' lack of interest in social contact with the instructor during class, and the absence of drop-outs are all attributed to the contingencies employed, chief among which, according to the instructor's judgment and student rankings, were self-pacing, frequent non-punitive exams and a guaranteed grade of A for near-perfect work at every stage.     

Rating Level and Accuracy as a Function of Rater Personality

We investigated the predictability of rating level and two measures of rating accuracy from rater Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C) scores of the Five Factor Model. One hundred and twenty‐six students made peer ratings after participating in several group exercises under conditions designed to emulate the modal peer rating system in which raters had low accountability for their ratings. Scores were correlated with average rating level (r=.18, p<.05) and both measures of rating accuracy (p<.05) and C scores were correlated with rating level (?.20, p<.05) and both measures of rating accuracy (p<.05). As suggested by Bernardin, Villanova, and Cooke (Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 232–236, 2000), raters who were both more agreeable and less conscientious made the most lenient and least accurate ratings. Contrary to Yun, Donahue, Dudley, and McFarland (International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13, 97–107, 2005), more agreeable raters also tended to rate the least effective performers more leniently than did other raters.     

A survey of celiac-sprue patients: effect of dietary restrictions on religious practices

Celiac-Sprue Disease, also referred to as Non-Tropical Sprue, is a dietary disease. Celiac-Sprue patients were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding the effect of dietary restrictions on participation in the Passover meal and reception of Communion. A pilot study suggested that subjects made changes in their religious practices because of dietary restrictions. A second, more detailed survey, was performed in which 58 subjects participated and 14 religions were represented. The results indicated that many subjects made changes in their religious practices (p less than .01), made changes on their own initiative (p less than .01), or violated diet prescribed for the disease under the religious setting versus other settings (p less than .05).     

THE SEMANTICS OF ASKING A FAVOUR AN ATTEMPT TO REPLICATE CROSS-CULTURALLY

A field experiment was conducted in Scotland, replicating as closely as possible the method and procedure of an experiment in the U.S.A. by Langer and Abelson (1972), to test the hypothesis that the form in which an appeal for help is made is dependent upon the legitimacy of the request. The data indicated that help was given at a substantially higher level in Scotland than in the U.S.A., but that the form of the interaction obtained was similar. Compliance to an illegitimate favour was higher when the request emphasised the responsibility of the helper while compliance to a legitimate favour was higher when the emphasis was placed upon the plight of the victim.     

Adaptation is automatic

Two experiments were used to test whether selective adaptation for speech occurs automatically or instead requires attentional resources. A control condition demonstrated the usual large identification shifts caused by repeatedly presenting an adapting sound (/wa/, with listeners identifying members of a /ba/-/wa/ test series). Two types of distractor tasks were used: (1) Subjects did a rapid series of arithmetic problems during the adaptation periods (Experiments 1 and 2), or (2) they made a series of rhyming judgments, requiring phonetic coding (Experiment 2). A control experiment (Experiment 3) demonstrated that these tasks normally impose a heavy attentional cost on phonetic processing. Despite this, for both experimental conditions, the observed adaptation effect was just as large as in the control condition. This result indicates that adaptation is automatic, operating at an early, preattentive level. The implications of these results for current models of speech perception are discussed.     

Piaget's data and spearman's theory—An empirical reconciliation and its implications for academic achievement

A hierarchical simple structure factor solution was obtained for item scores from a psychometrized battery of Piagetian-type tasks individually administered to 660 kindergarten children. At the first level of factors were the Piagetian theoretical entities of seriation, classification, conservation of number, and temporal and spatial reasoning, with numeration loading on seriation and classification as indicated by the theory. At the second level were two factors identified as Piaget's logicomathematical and infralogical operations. A third-level factor was identified as a g factor. The association of the Piagetian-type tasks with kindergarden and first grade academic achievement was through the third-level g factor. The second-level factors appeared to be similar to Vernon's k:m and v:ed but, like the first level factors, made no important contribution to predicted achievement above that contributed by the g factor. A socioeconomic factor made no unique contribution to predicted first grade achievement. It was concluded that the Piagetian concrete operations variables have no unique role in the prediction of kindergarten or first grade academic achievement.     

Physical activity levels in young adult Hispanics and Whites: Social cognitive theory determinants

The psychosocial determinants of health-impairing physical inactivity among Hispanic populations have not been well explored nor have systematic comparisons been made with White populations using Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) measures. Three exercise-relevant efficacy measures (task, scheduling, and response efficacy), three exercise-relevant expectancy measures (physical health, psychological health, and self-evaluative), and self reports of activity levels were obtained from 20-year-old male and female Hispanics (n?=?94) and Whites (n?=?94). Activity levels for the two groups were analyzed in separate regression analyses that included the six SCT measures and gender as predictors. The set of seven predictors accounted for 51% of the variance in self-reported activity levels in each analysis. For young adult Hispanics, task efficacy, response efficacy, mental-health expectancies, and self-evaluative expectancies predicted activity level. For young adult Whites, scheduling efficacy and self-evaluative expectancies predicted activity level. Gender was not a significant predictor of activity level for either group. A multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the only SCT predictor on which Hispanics and Whites significantly differed was mental-health expectancies. The results of this study indicate that the psychosocial determinants of exercise are qualitatively different for the two groups and that the determinants of physical activity levels for young adult Hispanics may not be as effective as those of young adult Whites in sustaining lifelong exercise habits. Thus the present study offers a promising strategy for detecting inactivity-related physical- and mental-health risks at an age when lifelong habits of physical activity are still being formed.     

Variability in children's level of reasoning about friendship

Maturity and variability in level of friendship reasoning were evaluated in 4th-7th grade children. Peer reputation in the classroom was also assessed. Results indicated greater intraindividual variability in friendship reasoning than previous reports have suggested. In addition, friendship reasoning maturity made significant contributions in accounting for variance in Positive and Isolated peer reputation even after sex, socio-economic status (SES), and IQ were taken into account, while reasoning variability was the only variable accounting for significant variance in Disruptive peer reputation. Implications for social cognition research and intervention are discussed.     

The “ABCs” of REBT I: A Preliminary Study of Errors and Confusions in Counselling and Psychotherapy Textbooks

In this study, a random sample of twenty counselling and psychotherapy textbooks were studied with respect to the errors and confusions made by the authors of these textbooks with respect to the ??ABCs?? of REBT. A total of 240 of such errors/confusions were found with most being made about beliefs at ??B??, particularly about irrational beliefs. A variety of errors and confusions were also made about (i) the relationship between ??B?? and ??C?? (including whether or not such a relationship is causal), (ii) the relationship between irrational beliefs and disturbed responses at ??C??, (iii) ??A?? and (iv) ??emotional ??Cs??. Twenty errors were even made about the name of the therapy! It was suggested that one way of addressing this state of affairs would be for the Albert Ellis Institute to commission a group of REBT experts to write a document especially for authors of counselling and psychotherapy textbooks and for publishers of these works that specifies clearly and accurately agreed wisdom about the ??ABCs?? of REBT. The weaknesses of the current study were noted and suggestions for future research made.     

Symposium on Alternation of Response: I. Introduction and Historical Perspective

Celiac-Sprue Disease, also referred to as Non-Tropical Sprue, is a dietary disease. Celiac-Sprue patients were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding the effect of dietary restrictions on participation in the Passover meal and reception of Communion. A pilot study suggested that subjects made changes in their religious practices because of dietary restrictions. A second, more detailed survey, was performed in which 58 subjects participated and 14 religions were represented. The results indicated that many subjects made changes in their religious practices (p > .01), made changes on their own initiative (p > .01), or violated diet prescribed for the disease under the religious setting versus other settings (p > .05).     

Social mobbing calls in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus): effects of experience and associated cortisol levels

We compared the mobbing response to model snakes of two groups of captive-born common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) differing in genetic relatedness, age and past experience. Mobbing vocalisations (tsik calls), other mobbing behaviour and attention to the stimulus were recorded for 2 min. intervals pre-exposure, during exposure to various stimuli and post-exposure. Marmosets in one group were vocally reactive to all stimuli, although more so to one particular stimulus resembling rearing snakes and modified images of it, whereas the marmosets in a younger and genetically unrelated group attended to the stimuli but made very few mobbing calls. The parent stock of the first group had suffered stress in early life and had developed a phobic response to a specific stimulus, which they had transmitted to their offspring. A third group, matching the older group in age range but genetically unrelated, was also found to be unresponsive to the stimulus that elicited the strongest response in the first group. Cortisol levels in samples of hair were assayed and a significant negative correlation was found between the number of tsik calls made during presentation of the stimuli and the cortisol level, showing that mobbing behaviour/behavioural reactivity is associated with low levels of physiological stress.     

Motivation in Italian whole blood donors and the role of commitment

The literature contains numerous reports on motivation in blood donors, although none of these are specific to blood donation in Italy and almost all of them focus on altruism and the desire to help others. Altruism is important, but a comprehensive analysis of donor motivation should examine all the factors affecting the decision to donate, including commitment to voluntary blood donor organizations. The aims of this paper are to verify if the motivational factors that influence the choice to donate blood in Italy are generally consistent with the findings from other countries reported in the literature and to focus on commitment to donor organizations as an additional factor. A sample of 895 whole blood donors completed a self-report questionnaire containing questions about: reasons for beginning to donate, people who influenced this choice, and level of commitment to voluntary blood donor organizations. The most frequently reported reasons for giving blood for the first time were "to help others" (56%), "influence of family/friends" (22%), and "social/moral obligation" (11.2%); commitment did not vary as a function of the leading motivation reported. Differences emerged between males, who more frequently reported having been influenced by parents and friends, and females, who referred more often to altruistic motives. The opportunity to check one's own state of health also played an important role (6.9%), especially for male donors. Overall, however, the decision to donate was primarily a personal choice (41.3%), although influence was also attributed to relatives (21.8%), friends (22.3%), and voluntary blood donor organizations (21.8%). The reported level of commitment to the donor organization was positively correlated with the number of total and annual donations made and number of new donors recruited.     

Egalitarianism and Responsibility

This essay examines several possible rationales for the egalitarian judgment that justice requires better-off individuals to help those who are worse off even in the absence of social interaction. These rationales include equality (everyone should enjoy the same level of benefits), moral meritocracy (each should get benefits according to her responsibility or deservingness), the threshold of sufficiency (each should be assured a minimally decent quality of life), prioritarianism (a function of benefits to individuals should be maximized that gives priority to the worse off), and mixed views. A case is made for adopting either prioritarianism or a mixed view that gives priority both to the worse off and to the more responsible and deserving.     

Clinical Judgment: The Effects of Statistical Information

Four different judges at 3 levels of clinical experience were asked to make postdictive judgments on the length of stay in psychotherapy for mental health service clients. Judgments were made under 4 conditions in which psychodiagnostic and statistical information increased incrementally at each level. Accuracy increased with more information. Accuracy by experience level was not significant. A significant group by information level interaction demonstrated a lower proportion of correct judgments for the less experienced Js under reduced levels of information. Appropriateness of judgments was also lower for the less experienced Js. Statistical information was concluded to be valuable in clinical judgment.     

Measuring Family Therapy Outcome in a Clinical Setting: Families That Do Better or Do Worse in Therapy

This study examined several important family and therapist characteristics as they related to treatment success. A total of 434 families entering family therapy at a sliding-fee clinic in Dallas, Texas were rated (on the Beavers Interactional Competence and Style Scales), and completed several self-report family assessment instruments (Self-Report Family Inventory, FACES III) prior to beginning therapy. The therapists, trainees from various disciplines, had been trained in the Beavers Systems Model. Overall, 75% of the families showed at least some improvement. Those that fared best in therapy were more competent at the outset. While number of therapy sessions was associated with greater gains, there were some families that made great gains in fewer than six sessions. There were important demographic qualities that did not discriminate between greater- vs. lesser-gain families, including income level, ethnicity, therapist gender, and family size. A regression analysis indicated that functional rather than demographic variables were more important in predicting therapy outcome.