A critical comparison of two random-walk models for two-choice reaction time

Two random-walk models for two-choice reaction time, being the sequential probability ratio test model initially suggested by Stone and the relative judgment theory recently proposed by Link, are here compared. The comparison shows the precise mathematical relation between the models, the predictions they have in common, and two points at which they differ. Three experiments concerned with the effect of stimulus probability on two-choice reaction time are examined with respect to three predictions from the models. In this three-way comparison the two models are more like each other than either is to the data; a greater variety of phenomena is revealed than either model can at present accommodate.     

What makes a man similar to a tie? Stimulus compatibility with comparison and integration

We argue and show that different properties of stimuli are compatible with different types of processing. Specifically, object pairs from the same taxonomic category (e.g., chair-bed) tend to be alignable and thus compatible with comparison, whereas object pairs that play different roles in thematic relations (e.g., chair-carpenter) tend to be nonalignable and compatible with integration. Using object pairs that varied orthogonally in alignability and thematic relatedness, we demonstrated that stimulus compatibility modulates processing and affects the outcomes of tasks that are currently believed to involve only comparison (similarity ratings, Experiment 1; listing commonalities and differences, Experiment 2) or only integration (thematic relatedness ratings, Experiment 3). Our findings and others that we have reviewed suggest that: (1) many cognitive tasks involve both comparison and integration, and (2) the relative influence of each process is modulated by an interplay between the task-appropriate and the stimulus-compatible process. We believe that single-process models should be extended to take this interplay into account.     

Spatial updating relies on an egocentric representation of space: Effects of the number of objects

Models of spatial updating attempt to explain how representations of spatial relationships between the actor and objects in the environment change as the actor moves. In allocentric models, object locations are encoded in an external reference frame, and only the actor’s position and orientation in that reference frame need to be updated. Thus, spatial updating should be independent of the number of objects in the environment (set size). In egocentric updating models, object locations are encoded relative to the actor, so the location of each object relative to the actor must be updated as the actor moves. Thus, spatial updating efficiency should depend on set size. We examined which model better accounts for human spatial updating by having people reconstruct the locations of varying numbers of virtual objects either from the original study position or from a changed viewing position. In consistency with the egocentric updating model, object localization following a viewpoint change was affected by the number of objects in the environment.     

Interference From Multi-dimensional Objects During Feature and Conjunction Discriminations

Feature discrimination performance within an attended object and interference from irrelevant, multi-dimensional objects (distractors) were examined in a two-choice, response compatibility paradigm. Results showed that the amount of interference by multi-dimensional distractors was dependent on three factors: (1) the discriminability of the incompatible, task-relevant distractor features; (2) the number of incompatible, task-relevant distractor features; and (3) whether the task-relevant, incompatible features matched the task goals. The most interesting finding was that additive priming effects were found for multiple, task-relevant features that matched the task goals, whether these features were present in the attended object or in the ignored object. Models that assume that each task-relevant feature primes its corresponding decision/response asynchronously and that this priming is combined to meet a decision/response criterion (at least when attended) can account for distractor interference during conjunction discriminations. Implications of these findings for feature integration models, template models, and a response selection model are discussed.     

主语优先现象及其认知机制

主语优先是言语加工中的一种语序效应, 它具体表现为三个方面：论元歧义句的理解过程中, 首论元倾向于被解释为主语; 非歧义句的理解过程中, 首论元为宾语时的加工难于首论元为主语时的加工; 关系从句的理解过程中, 主语的提取比宾语的提取更容易。本文对主语优先现象主要进行了以下方面的论述：① 结合印欧语系和非印欧语系中的各种类型的语言, 详细分析了主语优先现象及其普遍性与特殊性; ② 主语优先现象的理论解释：基于工作记忆的理论、句法关联理论、突出性特征理论和基于频率的理论; ③ 与主语优先现象有关的脑电成分及其所体现的认知加工过程。最后, 结合已有的研究, 指出了主语优先现象未来的研究方向。     

The joint

Some concave volumes are perceived as compositions of joined objects. Joined objects are optically undetermined, being compatible with three possible solutions: an empty intersection volume bounded by two indented objects; an intersection volume entirely filled-in by parts of two indented objects; a totally convex object joined to an indented object (the solution preferred by most perceivers). Knowledge of material penetrability does not predict 3D amodal completion. To identify relevant factors we selected different compositions and ran a multiple-regression analysis of completion choices. After eliminating colour, we considered six spatial factors: relative position along the vertical, relative size, orientation, proximity to the observer, minimization of completed parts, support relationship. The first two factors played a major role. The comparison of choices by upright versus inverted observers indicated that relative position along the vertical depends more on gravitational than egocentric coordinates. In conclusion, when relative spatial position and relative size cooperate, amodal completion of intersecting solids generates strong effects, which can overcome logical expectations.     

The perception of doubly curved surfaces from anisotropic textures

Abstract— Most existing computational models of the visual perception of three-dimensional shape from texture are based on assumed constraints about how texture is distributed on visible surfaces. The research described in the present article was designed to investigate how violations of these assumptions influence human perception. Observers were presented with images of smoothly curved surfaces depicted with different types of texture, whose distribution of surface markings could be both anisotropic and inhomogeneous. Observers judged the pattern of ordinal depth on each object by marking local maxima and minima along designated scan lines. They also judged the apparent magnitudes of relative depth between designated probe points on the surface. The results revealed a high degree of accuracy and reliability in all conditions, except for a systematic underestimation of the overall magnitude of surface relief. These findings suggest that human perception of three-dimensional shape from texture is much more robust than would be reasonable to expect based on current computational models of this phenomenon.     

Optical Specification of Time-to-Contact for a Spectator

In the article, we provide an account of the informational basis underlying judgments of time-to-contract (TTC) under the conditions examined in Kim, Effken, and Carello (1998), in which observers watched collisions between 2 objects from various vantage points, over varying collision paths, and with additional observer movement. First, we examine the informational candidates proposed by Bootsma and his colleagues (e.g., Bootsma & Oudejans, 1993) and by Tresilian (1990). Simulation results showed that these models do not accurately describe TTc for such varying conditions. We present an alternative model, emphasizing the advantages of body scaling. Our model applied this scaling to the vertical gap between edges of the opposing surfaces of each object. Because all model terms are expressed in eyeheight units, distortions that occurred in the other models due to polar injection are eliminated. The proposed model provided veridical estimates of TTC for straight-line collision cases over a variety of viewing angles and with the addition of observer movement, but not for collisions along circular paths, in which the model only approximated TTC values.     

Black Women's Self-Perceptions of Attractiveness Following Exposure to White Versus Black Beauty Standards: The Moderating Role of Racial Identity and Self-Esteem

This study examined racial identity, self-esteem, and Black versus White beauty standards as moderators of body image perceptions among 60 Black women. In two experimental conditions, subjects evaluated photographs of either three Black models or three White models, all previously determined to be attractive. Control group subjects did not evaluate photographs. All subjects then completed measures of their own body esteem and attractiveness. Results indicated that body esteem was positively related to self-esteem for subjects in the photograph conditions but not for subjects in the control condition. The relative attractiveness ratings of self versus models were dependent on race of the models and subjects' self-esteem, and on race of the models and subjects' racial identity. The first interaction indicated more favorable comparative ratings for subjects with high self-esteem, but only following exposure to White models. The second interaction indicated more favorable comparative ratings for subjects with high African self-consciousness, but only following exposure to White models. Taken together, the results suggest that explicit beauty standards engage a comparison process and, in the case of Black respondents with high self-esteem or with high African self-consciousness, result in self-evaluations that are significantly higher than the attractiveness attributed to White standards of beauty.     

Auditory phase and frequency discrimination: a comparison of nine procedures

Two auditory discrimination tasks were thoroughly investigated: discrimination of frequency differences from a sinusoidal signal of 200 Hz and discrimination of differences in relative phase of mixed sinusoids of 200 Hz and 400 Hz. For each task psychometric functions were constructed for three observers, using nine different psychophysical measurement procedures. These procedures included yes-no, two-interval forced-choice, and various fixed- and variable-standard designs that investigators have used in recent years. The data showed wide ranges of apparent sensitivity. For frequency discrimination, models derived from signal detection theory for each psychophysical procedure seem to account for the performance differences. For phase discrimination the models do not account for the data. We conclude that for some discriminative continua the assumptions of signal detection theory are appropriate, and underlying sensitivity may be derived from raw data by appropriate transformations. For other continua the models of signal detection theory are probably inappropriate; we speculate that phase might be discriminable only on the basis of comparison or change and suggest some tests of our hypothesis.     

Space-based visual attention models and object selection: Constraints,problems, and possible solutions

Summary One of the functions of visual attention is the selection of object information. This seems to be in line with an influential group of attentional models that assume that attentional selection is space based. These models assume that the selection of an object in vision is realized by selection of the location of that object. Whether this relatively simple idea of space-based attention and the corresponding, more elaborated space-based models are sufficient to handle selected constraints and problems of object selection is the main issue of this article. The first step toward an answer is to describe the common computational structure of space-based attentional models. Two model classes will be distinguished: capacity-limited models (e.g., Treisman, 1988; LaBerge & Brown, 1989) and models that do not assume a capacity limitation (e. g., Van der Heijden, 1992). Next, three kinds of task and data on object selection are introduced that are especially challenging for space-based models. The first type of data refers to experiments that require selection between overlapping objects. The second type of data concerns the influence of early perceptual grouping - a strong object-defining factor- on late response competition, and the third type consists of a selection task in which a high-level (semantic) attribute defines an object and controls selection. In all three cases, problems of space-based models are analyzed and possible solutions are sketched. Finally, a brief evaluative summary is given.     

The illuminative function of the agent intellect

Thomas Aquinas argues that the agent intellect's function is to abstract an intelligible species from a phantasm. However, insofar as he claims that the intelligible species is not present in the phantasm, it is unclear how the agent intellect accomplishes this task. In this paper I explore two models of abstraction – the extraction model and the production model – suggesting that each fails to capture Aquinas’ understanding of abstraction. I then offer my own interpretation of the function of the agent intellect – the illumination model – by employing Aquinas’ comparison of the agent intellect to light. I argue that the agent intellect neither extracts nor produces an intelligible species, but rather makes the nature that is already present in the object intelligible by actualizing its passive power of intelligibility. This involves the co-actualization of partner powers in the intellect and in the intelligible object, and ultimately makes it possible to cognize a particular, material object in a universal way.     

Goal-directed access to mental objects in working memory: The role of task-specific feature retrieval

In the present study, we examined the hypothesis of task-specific access to mental objects from verbal working memory. It is currently assumed that a mental object is brought into the focus of attention in working memory by a process of object selection, which provides this object for any upcoming mental operation (Oberauer, 2002). We argue that this view must be extended, since the selection of information for processing is always guided by current intentions and task goals. In our experiments, it was required that two kinds of comparison tasks be executed on digits selected from a set of three digits held in working memory. The tasks differed in regard to the object features the comparison was based on. Access to a new mental object (object switch) took consistently longer on the semantic comparison task than on the recognition task. This difference is not attributable to object selection difficulty and cannot be fully accounted for by task difficulty or differences in rehearsal processes. The results support our assumptions that (1) mental objects are selected for a given specific task and, so, are accessed with their specific task-relevant object features; (2) verbal mental objects outside the focus of attention are usually not maintained at a full feature level but are refreshed phonologically by subvocal rehearsal; and (3) if more than phonological information is required, access to mental objects involves feature retrieval processes in addition to object selection.     

Infants Detect Patterns of Choices Despite Counter Evidence,but Timing of Inconsistency Matters

Understanding others’ preference for a relational category of objects (e.g., prefer darker colored shirts) can be challenging for young children, as it involves comparison of choice options within and across exemplars. Adding to the challenge is occasional inconsistency in choices made by others. Here the authors examined whether 14-month-olds could detect an experimenter’s preference for taller objects when they observed choices that were somewhat inconsistent. Infants watched four familiarization events involving different object pairs: The experimenter chose the taller of two objects thrice and the shorter object once—the inconsistent choice was presented at different time points of familiarization. The infants detected the experimenter’s preference for taller objects only when they had observed three consistent choices consecutively from the beginning. This finding is in line with relational learning, specifically the significant role of initial data in the extraction of relational commonality. It also connects to the hierarchical Bayesian models of rational learning: Inconsistency can be discounted when the initial data allow learners to distinguish a highly probable hypothesis.     

Gaze and informativeness during category learning: Evidence for an inverse relation

In what follows, we explore the general relationship between eye gaze during a category learning task and the information conveyed by each member of the learned category. To understand the nature of this relationship empirically, we used eye tracking during a novel object classification paradigm. Results suggest that the average fixation time per object during learning is inversely proportional to the amount of information that object conveys about its category. This inverse relationship may seem counterintuitive; however, objects that have a high-information value are inherently more representative of their category. Therefore, their generality captures the essence of the category structure relative to less representative objects. As such, it takes relatively less time to process these objects than their less informative companions. We use a general information measure referred to as representational information theory (Vigo, 2011a, 2013a) to articulate and interpret the results from our experiment and compare its predictions to those of three models of prototypicality.     

Hidden figures are ever present

Preference judgments about alternative interpretations of unambiguous patterns can be explained in terms of a rivalry between a preferred and a second-best interpretation (cf. Leeuwenberg & Buffart, 1983). We tested whether this second-best interpretation corresponds to a suppressed but concurrently present interpretation or whether it merely reflects an alternative view that happens to be preferred less often. Two patterns were present immediately following each other with a very short onset asynchrony: a complete pattern and one out of three possible subpatterns of it, corresponding to the best, the second best, or an odd interpretation of the complete pattern. Subjects indicated which subpattern was presented by choosing among the three subpatterns shown after each trial. The scores, corrected for response-bias effects, indicated a relative facilitation of the second-best interpretation, in agreement with its predicted "hidden" presence. This result is more in line with theories that capitalize on the quality of the finally selected representation than with processing models aimed at reaching one single solution as fast and as economically as possible.     

物体表征强度对基于动态物体的注意的影响

基于物体的注意已得到许多静态物体实验的证实, 然而, 对注意分配如何受动态物体影响的研究较少, 存在提示物体假设和动态更新假设两种观点。提示物体假设认为基于物体的注意由最初的物体决定, 而动态更新假设则认为由变化之后的物体决定。动态物体的注意研究还发现了即时物体效应, 即注意基于新物体进行。对于物体变化时注意究竟基于旧物体还是新物体, 新旧物体的相对物体表征强度在其中起决定作用; 当提示物体表征较强时表现为提示物体(即旧物体)决定注意分配, 而当即时物体表征较强时表现为即时物体(即新物体)决定注意分配。相对物体表征强度的概念对理解物体动态变化情况下基于物体的注意的分配以及解决相关理论之冲突可能有重要作用。     

Practice and Training in Family Therapy: A Known Group Study

The present study reports on a comparative survey of the belief and action systems of graduates who had been intensively trained in one of three of the major models of family therapy: Bowenian, communications, and strategic. An analysis of the factor-analyzed assumptions (belief system) and style (action system) items showed consistently greater divergence among the three models than convergence, as well as a remarkable synchronicity between the respective literature on these three models and their implementation, as represented by family therapists intensively trained in each model. A comparison of the present study's findings with previous research strongly supports the potency of formal and intensive training for developing adherents of a particular model and suggests that the distinctiveness of each model needs to be more fully developed in preference to premature attempts to develop generic or inclusive models that may become internally inconsistent and therefore difficult to operationalize in practice.     

Comparing Personality Characteristics,Values, and Goals as Antecedents of Organizational Attractiveness

Person–organization (P–O) fit was examined as an antecedent of individuals’ attraction to organizations by operationalizing P–O fit as the similarity between individuals and organizations on three points of comparison: personality dimensions, values, and goals. It was hypothesized that compared to P–O fit on values and on goals, P–O fit on personality dimensions would be related more strongly to organizational attractiveness. It was also hypothesized that relative to P–O fit on goals, P–O fit on values would be related more strongly to organizational attractiveness. The results indicated that each of the points of comparison had a unique effect on organizational attractiveness and that individuals were more attracted to organizations that were similar to them than to organizations that were dissimilar to them.     

The perceptual buildup of three-dimensional structure from motion

We present a set of psychophysical experiments that measure the accuracy of perceived three-dimensional (3-D) structure derived from relative motion in the changing two-dimensional image. The experiments are motivated in part by a computational model proposed by Ullman (1984), called the incremental rigidity scheme, in which an accurate 3-D structure is built up incrementally, by considering images of moving objects over an extended time period. Our main conclusions are: First, the human visual system can derive an accurate model of the relative depths of moving points, even in the presence of noise in their image positions; second, the accuracy of the 3-D model improves with time, eventually reaching a plateau; and third, the 3-D structure currently perceived appears to depend on previous 3-D models. Through computer simulations, we relate the results of our psychophysical experiments with the predictions of Ullman's model.