The national institutes of health attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder consensus statement: implications for practitioners and scientists

Although the concept of pharmacotherapy for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was first introduced more than 60 years ago, treatment of this disorder remains more controversial than ever. It is hoped, however, that the recent Consensus Development Conference (CDC) Statement on the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD will not only help answer some of the questions surrounding management of this disorder, but also lend needed scientific weight to debate in this area. While more research in ADHD is needed, the CDC participants pointed to a solid body of evidence showing that careful medication management can result in noticeable improvement in several measures, with little risk of adverse events.     

From clinic to congregation: religious communities and genetic medicine

The human genome project is an attempt to identify all the genes on the human chromosomes that determine the biological makeup of every individual. Armed with such knowledge, argues M. Therese Lysaught, doctors will face intense pressure to practice medicine in a way that differs radically from practice at present. Rather than responding to disease, they will attempt to eliminate the biological conditions that create disease in the first place. The church as a community of distinctive moral discourse needs to become familiar with the genome project and its consequences for medicine, so as to be able to make informed and appropriate decisions.     

伦理消费者为何“言行不一”:解释水平的视角

伦理消费(Ethical consumption,EC)是指消费者在获取、使用或处置产品时考虑到个人消费行为对社会、环境或动物福祉的影响。虽然伦理消费日渐流行,但在金钱支付时伦理消费的态度却往往难以转化为实际的行为,即言行不一。本文从解释水平理论视角出发,以"心理距离→解释水平→个体反应"为分析框架展开。从时间维度上来说,在态度评价阶段和产品选择阶段两个时间点上,消费者与伦理产品的心理距离远近不同,分别激活了高低解释水平表征;高低解释水平下个体在动机和认知上又存在诸多差异,这种差异导致两个阶段的反应不同,继而出现伦理消费者态度与行为的分离。未来研究应重点关注如何根据解释水平理论有效提高伦理消费行为。     

The virtues of gossip: reputational information sharing as prosocial behavior

Reputation systems promote cooperation and deter antisocial behavior in groups. Little is known, however, about how and why people share reputational information. Here, we seek to establish the existence and dynamics of prosocial gossip, the sharing of negative evaluative information about a target in a way that protects others from antisocial or exploitative behavior. We present a model of prosocial gossip and the results of 4 studies testing the model's claims. Results of Studies 1 through 3 demonstrate that (a) individuals who observe an antisocial act experience negative affect and are compelled to share information about the antisocial actor with a potentially vulnerable person, (b) sharing such information reduces negative affect created by observing the antisocial behavior, and (c) individuals possessing more prosocial orientations are the most motivated to engage in such gossip, even at a personal cost, and exhibit the greatest reduction in negative affect as a result. Study 4 demonstrates that prosocial gossip can effectively deter selfishness and promote cooperation. Taken together these results highlight the roles of prosocial motivations and negative affective reactions to injustice in maintaining reputational information sharing in groups. We conclude by discussing implications for reputational theories of the maintenance of cooperation in human groups.     

Scientific and lay communities: earning epistemic trust through knowledge sharing

Feminist philosophers of science have been prominent amongst social epistemologists who draw attention to communal aspects of knowing. As part of this work, I focus on the need to examine the relations between scientific communities and lay communities, particularly marginalized communities, for understanding the epistemic merit of scientific practices. I draw on Naomi Scheman’s argument (2001) that science earns epistemic merit by rationally grounding trust across social locations. Following this view, more turns out to be relevant to epistemic assessment than simply following the standards of “normal science”. On such an account, philosophers of science need to attend to the relations between scientific communities and various lay communities, especially marginalized communities, to understand how scientific practices can rationally ground trust and thus earn their status as “good ways of knowing”. Trust turns out to involve a wide set of expectations on behalf of lay communities. In this paper I focus on expectations of knowledge sharing, using examples of “knowledge-sharing whistleblowers” to illustrate how failures in knowledge sharing with lay communities can erode epistemic trust in scientific communities, particularly in the case of marginalized communities.     

From thinking about what might have been to sharing what we know: The effects of counterfactual mind-sets on information sharing in groups

We hypothesized that the activation of a counterfactual mind-set minimizes group decision errors caused by the failure of groups to discuss unshared, uniquely held information. In two experiments, we manipulated the salience of counterfactual thoughts in a pre-task scenario and then had groups of three individuals discuss a murder mystery case. In both experiments, counterfactual mind-sets increased the discussion of unshared information and helped groups to identify the correct murder suspect. These results emerged regardless of whether the direction of the counterfactual thoughts was upward (Experiment 1) or downward (Experiment 2), suggesting that it is the process of thinking counterfactually, and not the content of the counterfactuals, that improves group decision making.     

From sharing to dividing: young children’s understanding of division

Children have particular difficulty with division problems, as compared to sharing problems. An inability to discriminate between the dividend, divisor and quotient might contribute to their difficulty with division. This study investigates whether young children (5–9 years) were able to discriminate between the divisor and quotient in simple division problems that were modeled for them. Children were presented with partitive and quotitive division problems in which the dividend was grouped either by the divisor or by the quotient. The children showed a very different pattern of results in the partitive and quotitive problems; they found it easier to identify the answer (quotient) when the dividend was grouped by the divisor in partitive problems and by the quotient in quotitive problems. It is argued that children rely on a schema of action of creating ‘portions’ when they first learn about division, and that the ‘portions’ produced by sharing are different in partitive and quotitive problems. We discuss this finding in terms of the importance of problem representation, children’s schemas of action and mental models.     

Prosocial behavior in families: Moderators of resource sharing

Archival studies of within-family prosocial behavior (Judge & Hrdy, 1992; Smith, Kish, & Crawford, 1987) have shown that inheritance patterns support Hamilton’s (1964) theory of inclusive fitness, such that people will more of their estates to relatives of closer genetic relatedness. In a survey-based simulation of these studies, students allocated one of three lotteries to their blood relatives. As expected, participants allocated greater proportions of their lotteries to relatives of greater genetic relatedness. This effect became stronger with decreasing lottery amounts. Relatives of certain relatedness were favored over relatives of uncertain relatedness (via paternal uncertainty), and this effect was stronger among those with less money to allocate. Male participants tended to favor their young female relatives over their young male relatives when given the smallest lottery, but this sex preference reversed when male participants were given the largest lottery. In general, scarcer resources led to more evolutionarily conservative investment strategies.     

From academic communities to managed organisations: The implications for academic careers in UK and German universities

This paper examines the implications for academic careers of the apparent global trend towards marketisation and managerialism in higher education with reference to the UK and Germany. It discusses how university employers might exercise greater control over their employees, privileging research and international publication, and fragmenting the traditional unity of the academic role. The effect is to challenge the values of academic communities, subject individuals to greater uncertainty, competition and insecurity, and influence the shape and direction of academic careers. The paper notes how today’s academic careers could be understood in terms of Kanter’s three forms of career as well as the boundaryless and protean career. However, it argues that these approaches do not address the key issue in both the UK and German cases: the changed locus and exercise of power within the employment relationship. It concludes that, to understand how careers are changing, this power relationship and the context of career in general have to be taken into account.     

The early history of the behavior modification of stuttering: From laboratory to clinic

The knowledge of and attitudes toward stuttering of 152 Alabama vocational rehabilitation counselors were studied using the Alabama Rehabilitation Counselors' Attitudes Toward Stuttering (ARCATS) Inventory consisting of 25 true- false statements designed to assess knowledge of stuttering and 15 statements designed to assess attitudes toward stuttering. Counselors were found to perceive stuttering as being significantly vocationally handicapping and amenable to therapy and to perceive stutterers as almost always benefiting from therapy and as being good candidates for vocational rehabilitation. It was concluded that the vocational rehabilitation counselors studied hold attitudes facilitative to the rehabilitation of stutterers.     

Power and consumer behavior: How power shapes who and what consumers value

The current paper reviews the concept of power and offers a new architecture for understanding how power guides and shapes consumer behavior. Specifically, we propose that having and lacking power respectively foster agentic and communal orientations that have a transformative impact on perception, cognition, and behavior. These orientations shape both who and what consumers value. New empirical evidence is presented that synthesizes these findings into a parsimonious account of how power alters consumer behavior as a function of both product attributes and recipients. Finally, we discuss future directions to motivate and guide the study of power by consumer psychologists.     

From social talk to social action: shaping the social triad with emotion sharing

Seemingly trivial social talk provides fertile ground for emotion sharing (a narrator and audience's realization that they experience the same emotional response toward a target), which in turn creates a coalition between the narrator and the audience, configures the narrator and audience's relationship with the target, and coordinates their target-directed action. In this article, the authors use 4 studies to investigate this thesis. In Studies 1 and 2--where participants rated scenarios in which narrators told them anecdotes--the authors found that when there was emotion sharing (a) participants were more bonded with narrators, (b) the narrator and audience's relationship with the target (as reflected in action tendencies) was determined by the emotionality of the anecdotes, and (c) they coordinated their target-directed actions. Study 3 demonstrated that this effect was indeed due to emotion sharing. Study 4 provided behavioral evidence for the effects of emotion sharing using a 2-person trust game. Together, these studies reveal that the everyday act of social talk is a powerful act that is able to shape the social triad of the narrator, the audience, and the social target, with powerful consequences for social structure and group action.